Sulfoglycolysis

Sulfoglycolysis is a catabolic process in primary metabolism in which sulfoquinovose (6-deoxy-6-sulfonato-glucose) is metabolized to produce energy and carbon-building blocks.[1] Sulfoglycolysis pathways occur in a wide variety of organisms, and enable key steps in the degradation of sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol (SQDG), a sulfolipid found in plants and cyanobacteria into sulfite and sulfate. Sulfoglycolysis converts sulfoquinovose (C6H12O8S−) into pyruvate CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Unlike glycolysis, all known sulfoglycolysis pathways convert only half the carbon content of sulfoquinovose into pyruvate; the remained is excreted as a C3-sulfonate: 2,3-dihydroxypropanesulfonate (DHPS) or sulfolactate (SL).

Three sulfoglycolytic processes are known:

  • The sulfoglycolytic Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (sulfo-EMP) pathway, first identified in Escherichia coli, involves the degradation of sulfoquinovose to 2,3-dihydroxypropanesulfonate (DHPS),[2] and shares similarity with the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas glycolysis pathway. This pathway leads to the production of the C3 intermediate dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
  • The sulfoglycolytic Entner-Doudoroff (sulfo-ED) pathway, first identified in Pseudomonas putida SQ1, involves the degradation of sulfoquinovose to sulfolactate,[3] and shares similarity to the Entner-Doudoroff pathway of glycolysis. This pathway leads to the production of the C3 intermediate pyruvate.
  • The sulfofructose transaldolase pathway, first identified in Bacillus aryabhattai, involves isomerization of SQ to sulfofructose, and then a transaldolase cleaves SF to 3-sulfolactaldehyde (SLA), while the non-sulfonated C3-(glycerone)-moiety is transferred to an acceptor molecule, glyceraldehyde phosphate (GAP), yielding fructose-6-phosphate (F6P).[4]

In all three pathways, energy is formed in later stages through the 'pay-off' phase of glycolysis through substrate-level phosphorylation to produce ATP and NADH.

Growth of bacteria on sulfoquinovose and its glycosides

A range of bacteria can grow on sulfoquinovose or its glycosides as sole carbon source. E. coli can grow on sulfoquinovose,[2] methyl α-sulfoquinovoside and α-sulfoquinovosyl glycerol.[5] Growth on sulfoquinovosyl glycerol is both faster and leads to higher cell density than for growth on sulfoquinovose.[5] Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain SQ1,[6] Klebsiella sp. strain ABR11,[7] Klebsiella oxytoca TauN1,[6] and Agrobacterium sp. strain ABR2[7] can grow on sulfoquinovose as sole carbon source. A strain of Flavobacterium was identified that could grow on methyl α-sulfoquinovoside.[8]

Production of sulfoquinovose and its mutarotation
Formation of sulfoquinovose from sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol (SQDG).

Sulfoquinovose is rarely found in its free form in nature; rather it occurs predominantly as a glycoside, SQDG. SQDG can be deacylated to form lyso-SQDG and sulfoquinovosylglycerol (SQGro).[9][10][11] Sulfoquinovose is obtained from SQ glycosides by the action of sulfoquinovosidases, which are glycoside hydrolases that can hydrolyse the glycosidic linkage in SQDG, or its deacylated form, sulfoquinovosyl glycerol (SQGro).[12] The first sulfoquinovosidase identified was YihQ from Escherichia coli. It exhibits a preference for the naturally occurring 2’R-SQGro.[5] Sulfoquinovosidases cleave SQ glycosides with retention of configuration, initially forming α-sulfoquinovose. Sulfoglycolysis encoding operons contain gene sequences encoding aldose-1-epimerases that act as sulfoquinovose mutarotases, catalyzing the interconversion of the α and β anomers of sulfoquinovose.[13]

Sulfo-EMP pathway
The sulfoglycolytic Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway.

The major steps in the sulfo-EMP pathway[2] are:

  • isomerization of sulfoquinovose to sulfofructose (catalyzed by sulfoquinovose isomerase);
  • phosphorylation of sulfofructose to sulfofructose-1-phosphate (catalyzed by sulfofructose kinase and using ATP as a co-factor);
  • retro-aldol cleavage of sulfofructose-1-phosphate to afford dihydroxyacetone phosphate and (S)-sulfolactaldehyde (catalyzed by sulfofructose-1-phosphate aldolase);
  • reduction of sulfolactaldehyde to (S)-2,3-dihydroxypropane-1-sulfonate (catalyzed by sulfolactaldehyde reductase and using NADH as a co-factor).[14]

Expression of proteins within the sulfo-EMP operon of E. coli is regulated by a transcription factor termed CsqR (formerly YihW).[15] CsqR binds to DNA sites within the operon encoding the sulfo-EMP pathway, functioning as a repressor. SQ and SQGro (but not lactose, glucose or galactose) function as derepressors of CsqR.

Sulfo-ED pathway
The sulfoglycolytic Entner-Douderoff pathway.

The major steps in the sulfo-ED pathway[3] are:

  • oxidation of sulfoquinovose to sulfogluconolactone (catalyzed by sulfoquinovose dehydrogenase with NAD+ co-factor);
  • hydrolysis of sulfogluconolactone to sulfogluconate acid (catalyzed by sulfogluconolactonase with water);
  • dehydration of sulfogluconic acid to 2-keto-3,6-dideoxy-6-sulfogluconate (catalyzed by sulfogluconate dehydratase);
  • retro-aldol cleavage of 2-keto-3,6-dideoxy-6-sulfogluconate to give pyruvate and (S)-sulfolactaldehyde (catalyzed by sulfoketogluconate dehydrogenase with NAD+ co-factor);
  • oxidation of sulfolactaldehyde to (S)-sulfolactate (catalyzed by sulfolactaldehyde dehydrogenase with NAD+ co-factor).

SFT pathway
The sulfoglycolytic sulfofructose transaldolase pathway.

The major steps in the SFT pathway [4] are:

  • isomerization of sulfoquinovose to sulfofructose (catalyzed by sulfoquinovose isomerase);
  • transaldol reaction of sulfofructose to release sulfolactaldehyde (catalyzed by sulfofructose transaldolase), and transfer of the C3-(glycerone)-moiety to glyceraldehyde phosphate, yielding fructose-6-phosphate;
  • sulfolactaldehyde may be reduced to (S)-2,3-dihydroxypropane-1-sulfonate (catalyzed by sulfolactaldehyde reductase and using NADH as a co-factor), or oxidized to sulfolactate (catalyzed by sulfolactaldehyde dehydrogenase using NAD+ as a co-factor).

The transaldolase can also catalyze transfer of the C3-(glycerone)-moiety to erythrose-4-phosphate, giving sedoheptulose-7-phosphate.

Degradation of DHPS and SL

The C3 sulfonates DHPS and SL are metabolized for their carbon content, as well as to mineralize their sulfur content.[1] Metabolism of DHPS typically involves conversion to SL. Metabolism of SL can occur in several ways including:

  • elimination of sulfite to afford pyruvate;
  • oxidation to sulfopyruvate, transamination to cysteate, and elimination of sulfite to afford pyruvate and ammonia;
  • oxidation to sulfopyruvate, decarboxylation to sulfoacetaldehyde, and phosphorylation to afford acetylphosphate and sulfite.

See also

References
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