William Freer Bale

William Freer Bale (1911 – 28 June 1982), biophysicist and educator, held key positions in the Atomic Energy Project at the University of Rochester. Pioneer in the study of radon exposure to miners.

Life and education

William Freer Bale, son of R. O. Bale was awarded a scholarship to Cornell University from Odessa, Schuyler County, New York after successfully passing an examination.[1] Bale graduated from Cornell in 1932. In 1936 he completed his Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Rochester.[2]

Atomic Energy Project

The Atomic Energy Project at the University of Rochester was a graduate teaching program. Stafford L. Warren directed the Department of Radiology and the project had three divisions. Bale headed the Radiology and Biophysics division that worked largely on radioactive materials—for example, radium, radon, plutonium, and polonium. James Newell Stannard was responsible for 2 sections, the Radiation Toxicology section and the Radioautography section. Harold Hodge headed the Pharmacology and Toxicology division that focused on Uranium including inhalation studies. Joe W. Howland, M.D. headed the Medical Services division. Herbert Mermagen worked in the Medical Physics section as a radiological physicist, known today as a health physicist.[3][4][5]

Bale performed research in X-ray diffraction of tooth and bone tissue. At Rochester responsible for development of dipping type counter tube for the determination of radioactivity in solutions. Responsible for the coordination of radioactive tracer research at Rochester and during World War II worked with the Manhattan Project performing uranium toxicology studies.

At Rochester, Bale worked with George Hoyt Whipple.[6] The discoveries of artificial radioactivity by Joliot-Curie and Fermi and the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence with its capability of producing useful amounts of radioactive iron (59Fe) permitted Whipple, Paul F. Hahn, and Bale in 1937 to begin an examination of the nature of iron absorption and utilization.[7]

In 1951 upon retirement from the University of Rochester, Bale became a Consultant in the Division of Biology and Medicine, Biophysics Branch, for the Atomic Energy Commission.

Radon and Miners

As early as the 1920s, German scientists were proposing that radon was the cause of the great excess of lung cancers (Ludewig et al. 1924).[8] Data from this research was collected during autopsies. From the 1820s to 1920s over 400 mine workers from a particular region were found to have died of `lung cancer` separate from other causes of death. Even with collective evidence, it was not until the 1950s, thanks in part to W.F. Bale, that it was accepted by researchers that radon was the major cause of radiation damage to lung tissue in mine workers.[9] Also discovered, was that tin, iron and uranium miners experience much higher levels of radon than coal miners.[10]

Human Radiation Research Experiments

Dr. Bale was the contact person at the University of Rochester for correspondence between Rochester and the Los Alamos Laboratory pertaining to the human plutonium study.[11] Bale was involved in the experiments that injected plutonium into human research subjects or ‘patients’. The human subjects were informed that these experiments were important to the war effort. The patients were told that the radioactive material had the potential to be hazardous in large doses but that the patients would receive small amounts that were not believed to be of any significant risk. Again, the emphasis was placed on the importance to the war effort. Bale would only select people that volunteer for the research and were eager to cooperate. Among those involved included: Albert Frenkel, Dorraine Leake, Helen Van Alstine, and Nat Cedars.

Select Awards and Honors

Reviewer, Cancer Research Journal

Select Publications
  • Apparatus for the Rapid Determination of β‐Ray Activity in Solutions[14]
  • Radioactive iron and its metabolism in anemia. Its absorption, transportation, and utilization[15]
  • A Combined Voltage Regulating and Quenching Circuit for the Geiger‐Müller Counter[16]
  • Radiation dosage to lungs from radon and its daughter products, Bale and Shapiro.[17]

List of Publications

Thesis & Dissertation
  • William F. Bale, X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE AND TOOTH SUBSTANCE, University of Rochester, Ph.D. Dissertation, (1936).[18]

1980s
  • O'Connor, S. W.; Bale, W. F. (1984). "Accessibility of circulating immunoglobulin G to the extravascular compartment of solid rat tumors". Cancer Res. 44 (9): 3719–23. PMID 6744289.
  • Contreras, M. A.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L. (1983). "Iodine monochloride (IC1) iodination techniques". Meth. Enzymol. 92: 277–92. doi:10.1016/0076-6879(83)92025-6.
  • Bale, W. F.; Contreras, M. A.; Grady, E. D. (1980). "Factors influencing localization of labeled antibodies in tumors". Cancer Res. 40 (8 Pt 2): 2965–72. PMID 7397692.

1970s
  • Helmkamp, R. W.; Bale, W. F.; Hrynyszyn, V. (1979). "The determination of 210Po and 210Bi in human urine by direct extraction on nickel". Int J Appl Radiat Isot. 30 (4): 237–46. doi:10.1016/0020-708X(79)90065-6. PMID 447425.
  • Izzo, M. J.; Contreras, M. A.; Bale, W. F. (1977). "Localization in rat skin transplants of purified 125I-labeled xenogeneic histocompatibility antibody". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 154 (2): 184–7. doi:10.3181/00379727-154-39633. PMID 320599.
  • Izzo, M. J.; Bale, W. F. (1976). "Preferential localization and rate of loss of labeled alloantibody from rat tumors and skin transplants carrying the corresponding alloantigen". Cancer Res. 36 (8): 2868–73. PMID 58724.
  • Bale, W. F.; Helmkamp, R. W.; Hrynyszyn, V.; Contreras, M. A. (1975). "The determination of 210Po in urine". Health Phys. 29 (5): 663–71. doi:10.1097/00004032-197511000-00004. PMID 1193877.
  • Bale, W. F.; Contreras, M. A.; Izzo, M. J.; della Penta, D.; Buchsbaum, D. J. (1974). "Preferential in-vivo localization of 125I-labeled antibody in a carcinogen-induced syngeneic rat tumor". Prog Exp Tumor Res. Progress in Tumor Research. 19: 270–83. doi:10.1159/000395861. ISBN 978-3-8055-1762-1. PMID 4438642.
  • Izzo, M. J.; Buchsbaum, D. J.; Bale, W. F. (1972). "Localization of an 125I-labeled rat transplantation antibody in tumors carrying the corresponding antigen". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 139 (4): 1185–8. doi:10.3181/00379727-139-36326. PMID 4112428.

1960s
  • Contreras, M. D.; Bale, W. F. (1968). "Endotoxin, epinephrine, and ellagic acid effects on the radiation-sensitized walker 256 rat carcinosarcoma". Radiat. Res. 36 (1): 166–79. Bibcode:1968RadR...36..166C. doi:10.2307/3572548. JSTOR 3572548.
  • Marrack, D.; Kubala, M.; Corry, P.; Leavens, M.; Howze, J.; Dewey, W.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L. (1967). "Localization of intracranial tumors. Comparative study with 131-I-labeled antibody to human fibrinogen and neohydrin-203Hg". Cancer. 20 (5): 751–5. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(1967)20:5<751::aid-cncr2820200529>3.0.co;2-e. PMID 6024287.
  • Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Marrack, D.; Dewey, W. C.; McCardle, R. J.; Harper, P. V. (1967). "131I-labeled antibodies to human fibrinogen. Diagnostic studies and therapeutic trials". Cancer. 20 (5): 865–70. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(1967)20:5<865::aid-cncr2820200546>3.0.co;2-5. PMID 6024295.
  • Izzo, J. L.; Bartlett, J. W.; Roncone, A.; Izzo, M. J.; Bale, W. F. (1967). "Physiological processes and dynamics in the disposition of small and large doses of biologically active and inactive 131I-insulins in the rat". J. Biol. Chem. 242 (10): 2343–55. PMID 6026231.
  • Helmkamp, R. W.; Contreras, M. A.; Bale, W. F. (1967). "I-131-labeling of proteins by the iodine monochloride method". Int J Appl Radiat Isot. 18 (11): 737–46. doi:10.1016/0020-708x(67)90011-7. PMID 4168148.
  • Helmkamp, R. W.; Contrera, de los Angeles; Bale, W. F. (1966). "A procedure for the determination of total iodine in radioactive iodide preparations of high specific activity". J. Nucl. Med. 7 (7): 491–500. PMID 4161792.
  • McCardle, R. J.; Harper, P. V.; Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Andros, G.; Jiminez, F. (1966). "Studies with iodine-131-labeled antibody to human fibrinogen for diagnosis and therapy of tumors". J. Nucl. Med. 7 (11): 837–47. PMID 5955363.
  • Bale, W. F.; Helmkamp, R. W.; Davis, T. P.; Izzo, M. J.; Goodland, R. L.; Contreras, M. A.; Spar, I. L. (1966). "High specific activity labeling of protein with I-131 by the iodine monochloride method". Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 122 (2): 407–14. doi:10.3181/00379727-122-31148. PMID 4167117.
  • I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, M. J. Izzo, (1964) PREPARATION OF PURIFIED I-131-LABELED ANTIBODY WHICH REACTS WITH HUMAN FIBRIN. PRELIMINARY TRACER STUDIES ON TUMOR PATIENTS, Cancer Res., 24(), 286-93
  • J. L. Izzo, W. F. Bale, M. J. Izzo, A. Roncone, (1964) HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY LABELING OF INSULIN WITH I-131. UR-637 UR Rep, 86(), 1-22
  • R. W. Helmkamp, M. A. Contreras, W. F. Bale, THE DETERMINATION OF TOTAL IODINE IN I-131-IODIDE PREPARATIONS OF HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY. UR Rep UR-644, 1964; 45: 1-32
  • Izzo, J. L.; Bale, W. F.; Izzo, M. J.; Roncone, A. (1964). "HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY LABELING OF INSULIN WITH 131I". J. Biol. Chem. 239: 3743–8. PMID 14257601.
  • Izzo, J. L.; Roncone, A.; Izzo, M. J.; Bale, W. F. (1964). "Relationship Between Degree of Iodination of Insulin and ITS Biological, Electrophoretic, and Immunochemical Properties". J. Biol. Chem. 239: 3749–54. PMID 14257602.
  • Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Goodland, R. L.; di Chiro, G. (1963). "Preparation of purified I-131 labeled antisera to human fibrinogen. Preliminary studies in tumor patients". Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum. 19: 197–200. PMID 13978519.
  • Dewey, W. C.; Bale, W. F.; Rose, R. G.; Marrack, D. (1963). "Localization of antifibrin antibodies in human tumors". Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum. 19: 185–96. PMID 14027435.
  • Dichiro, G.; Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Laskowski, E. J.; Goodland, R. L.; Matthews, W. B. (1963). "'RIAF' — Radio-Iodinated Anti-Fibrinogen Encephalography". Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockholm). 1 (3): 967–71. doi:10.1177/028418516300100354. PMID 14044734.
  • Bale, W. F.; Helmkamp, R. W.; Davis, T. P.; Izzo, M. J.; Goodland, R. L.; Spar, I. L. (1962). "High specific activity labeling of protein with I-131". UR Rep. 604: 37. PMID 24546533.
  • Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1962). "Research directed toward the use of I-131 labeled fibrinogen and antibody to fibrin in the localization and treatment of tumors". UR Rep. 612: 61. PMID 24546816.
  • Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1960). "Experimental radiation therapy of tumors with I-131-carrying antibodies to fibrin". Cancer Res. 20: 1488–94. PMID 13686301.
  • Helmkamp, R. W.; Goodland, R. L.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Mutschler, L. E. (1960). "High specific activity iodination of gamma-globulin with iodine-131 monochloride". Cancer Res. 20: 1495–1500. PMID 13713200.
  • Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Goodland, R. L. (1960). "Experimental radiation therapy of tumors using I-131 carrying antibodies to fibrin". ORINS Rep US at Energy Comm. 567: 1–25. PMID 15445667.
  • Helmkamp, R. W.; Goodland, R. L.; Bale, W. F.; Spar, I. L.; Mutschler, L. E. (1960). "High specific activity iodination of gamma-globulin with iodine-131 monochloride". ORINS Rep US at Energy Comm. 568: 1–18. PMID 15445692.
  • Spar, I. L.; Bale, W. F.; Goodland, R. L.; Casarett, G. W.; Michaelson, S. M. (1960). "Distribution of injected I-131 labeled antibody to dog fibrin in tumor-bearing dogs". UR Rep. 569: 1–13. PMID 24546277.

1950s

1940s

1930s

References
  1. Odessa News, The Watkins Express, (11 July 1928). p.7. http://fultonhistory.com/Newspaper-2018/WatkinsNYExpress/1928Jan-May1931/0234.pdf
  2. William F. Bale, X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE AND TOOTH SUBSTANCE, University of Rochester, Ph.D. Dissertation, (1936).
  3. Blair, Henry A., (27 April 1950) Quarterly Technical Report, 1 January 1950 thru 31 March 1950, Health and Biology UR-116, The University of Rochester, Atomic Energy Project, pp. 111.
  4. Rochester Alumni-Alumnae Review, June–July 1946, School of Medicine Wins Citation from Army; Manhattan Project Contract Renewed July 1. William F. Bale in photo. Vol. XXIII, No. 9, p. 15.
  5. Schmeck, Harry. Rochester Alumni-Alumnae Review, (March 1957). Medical Project Helps Prepare U.S. for Atomic Age; Manhattan Project Contract Renewed July 1. William F. Bale in photo. Vol. XVIII, No. 4, p. 13.
  6. http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/whipple-george.pdf
  7. Whipple, G. H.; Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Lawrence, E. O. (1939). "Radioactive iron and its metabolism in anemia. Its absorption, transportation, and utilization". J. Exp. Med. 69 (5): 739–53. doi:10.1084/jem.69.5.739. PMC 2133749. PMID 19870874.
  8. Ludewig, P.; Lorenser, E. (1924). "Investigation of the mine air in the Schneeberger pits on the amount of radium emanation". Zeitschrift für Physik, A Hadrons and Nuclei. 22 (1): 178–185. doi:10.1007/bf01328120.
  9. Bale, W.F. (1951). "Hazards associated with Radon and Thoron. Memorandum to the files. March 14, 1951". Health Physics. 38: 1062–1066. doi:10.1097/00004032-198006000-00014.
  10. Bale, W.F. (1980). "Hazard associated with radon and thoron. Memo to the file, Division of Biology and medicine, USAEC, Washington, DC, March 1951". Health Physics. 38: 1061–1066. doi:10.1097/00004032-198006000-00014.
  11. Interview of Dr. William F. Bale of the University of Rochester in his laboratory by Dr. Marks and Mr. Miazga at 11: 00 AM on 30 April 1974. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/servlets/purl/16124950/16124950.pdf
  12. Brown, J.D. (21–25 April ). Conference on the Use of Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers and Therapeutic Agents, Vanderbilt University.
  13. http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/root/sbworddocs/nuclear_med/VU_Pub_Hahn_Program.pdf
  14. Bale, William F.; Haven, Francis L.; LeFevre, Marian L. (1939). "Apparatus for the Rapid Determination of β-Ray Activity in Solutions". Rev. Sci. Instrum. 10 (6): 193. Bibcode:1939RScI...10..193B. doi:10.1063/1.1751525.
  15. Whipple, G. H.; Hahn, P. F.; Bale, W. F.; Lawrence, E. O. (1939). "Radioactive iron and its metabolism in anemia. Its absorption, transportation, and utilization". J. Exp. Med. 69 (5): 739–53. doi:10.1084/jem.69.5.739. PMC 2133749. PMID 19870874.
  16. Bale, William F.; John, F. Bonner Jr (1943). "A Combined Voltage Regulating and Quenching Circuit for the Geiger-Muller Counter". Rev. Sci. Instrum. 14: 222. doi:10.1063/1.1770167.
  17. BALE, W. F. and SHAPIRO, J. V. Radiation dosage to lungs from radon and its daughter products. Proc. UN International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, (August 1955), Vol 13. United Nations, New York, 1956, 233-236.
  18. William F. Bale, X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE AND TOOTH SUBSTANCE, University of Rochester, Ph.D. Dissertation, (1936).
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