Abortion in Kazakhstan

Abortion in Kazakhstan is legal as an elective procedure up to 12 weeks, and special circumstances afterwards.[1] The relevant legislation is based on the laws inherited from the country's Soviet past, when abortion was legally permitted as a contraceptive.[2]

Laws

The laws regulating abortion in Kazakhstan are the Reproductive Rights Law (2004),[3] the Criminal Code (1997) and the Ministry of Health Medical and Social Indications for Abortion (2008).[1][lower-roman 1]

Abortion is legal in the following cases:[1]

  • If the pregnant woman's health is at risk in one of the following ways, the approval of a committee of three health professionals (a gynecologist, the head of the institution, and an expert on her condition) is required,[lower-roman 2] and that the illness be on an approved list.
    • If the woman's life is at risk,[lower-roman 3] with no limit as to gestational age.
    • If the woman's health could be significantly harmed,[lower-roman 3] with no limit as to gestational age.
    • If the woman's mental health is at risk.[4]
  • Upon request, for whatever reason,[4] including reasons such as pregnancy from an incestuous relationship.
  • If the pregnant woman has a cognitive or intellectual disability.[lower-roman 4]
  • Pregnancy in a minor, requiring parental permission or that of another adult.[lower-roman 5]

Legal abortions are provided in private centers, Women's Consulting Centers, Maternity Houses, Polyclinics with Women's Consulting Offices, many hospitals and Family Group Practices.[5] Second-trimester abortions can only be performed in perinatal centers, maternity houses and multi-regional hospitals.[1]

The state provides measures to ensure that abortions are safe,[4] and obliges a pregnant woman considering an abortion to be assessed.[1][lower-roman 6] Providers of illegal abortions are sanctioned.[1][lower-roman 7] Contraceptives are provided following an abortion.[1][lower-roman 2]

History

Information on the prevalence of abortion in Kazakhstan comes primarily from two sources: the Ministry of Health and the Demographic and Health Survey of Kazakhstan.[6] High-quality surveys and other data are available, since the procedure has been legal for some time. However, reports are occasionally contradictory.[lower-roman 8][5]

Soviet Kazakhstan

For most of the 20th century, due to state support, the main method of contraception used in the Soviet Union was abortion.[7]

In 1920, the Soviet Union legalized abortion upon request as a temporary measure, because in the state of economic crisis, legal abortions would be a necessary measure to ensure sanitary conditions.[8] In Kazakhstan, the native Kazakhs were opposed. Over the following decade, anti-abortion would be an important current among Kazakhs, framed as a cultural bastion attacked by Soviet (generally Slavic) officials.[9] Even during the period of legalization, Russian authorities applauded Kazakh resistance to abortion.[10] Physicians warned that there were health risks associated with frequent resort to abortion.[9] During the period when abortion was legal, it was not practiced as legislators had intended- clinics did not receive funding and patients were forced to pay. Abortions were mainly had by ethnic Russian women in the Kazakhstan region (a mere 0.002% of abortions were performed on ethnic Kazakh women, primarily in urban areas).[11]

For Kazakhs, abortion was taboo,[11] although there were traditional methods practiced involving herbal abortifacients. The number of abortions performed increased in Kazakhstan as it did in Russia, with a particular increase between 1927 and 1928 provoked by the increase in available information about the surgical procedure and the change in morality. Illegal abortions began to decline and the increased abortion rate began to worry officials, such that officials began to distrust the practice of legal abortion, which led to it being banned.[10]

Illegal abortions occurred when doctors refused to perform abortions for one of the following health reasons: pregnancies past the first trimester, first pregnancies, or for those with dangerous medical conditions.[12] The fact that legally available abortions did not totally eliminate illegal abortions contributed to the Soviet decision to criminalize. At the start of the 1930s, Soviet officials openly criticized abortion and its legalization.[13] In peripheral areas of the USSR, including Kazakhstan, there was concern over the effects of sudden prohibition among those who defended a gradual prohibition and even education about other contraceptive methods.[14]

The period of legality ended on June 27, 1936[14] with “The Decree in Defense of Mother and Child”, a law under which abortions could only be performed for patients whose lives were in danger. Illegal abortions did not guarantee safe, sanitary conditions.[15] The regional (oblast) government established a system of controls to ensure the law was obeyed: physicians had to declare their practices, sending a request to end a pregnancy to be reviewed by a monthly committee.

Illegalization reinforced women's traditional roles in a patriarchal social situation, as it reinforced the idea of women as mothers and thus good patriots according to Soviet expectations.[16] The press was used as a propaganda tool against women who underwent illegal abortions, depicting them as capricious enemies of the motherland.[17] As Kazakh women rarely chose to have abortions, they were not targeted by legal persecution.[18] Women who went to hospitals with symptoms suggesting abortion were investigated. Doctors who practiced illegal abortions could be imprisoned for up to three years.[lower-roman 9] There are no reliable sources as to this clandestine activity[19] but evidence from the archives, contrary to the cased treated in the press, shows that women found undergoing illegal abortions were generally unmarried.[20]

In one case in 1940, eleven women with symptoms typical of attempted abortion were detained and separated from their families, underwent state scrutiny and faced public humiliation. They were later cleared of all charges.[21]

Due to a lack of presence on the ground, anti-abortion propaganda struggled to reach the people.[22] The campaign's impact is difficult to measure as there is little evidence of effect to be found.[23]

In the post-war period, it became evident that the propaganda effort had failed to reduce abortions.[24] Following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, the state stopped chasing illegal abortions and physicians practiced abortions in the first trimester upon request. In 1968, the Soviet Union once again legalized abortion upon request.[25]

Independent Kazakhstan
Year Legal abortion rate

(out of 1000 women aged 15–44)

1995 53[7]
1999 43.9,[26] or between 57 and 55 according to official sources[6]
2004 35[27]
2008 32.3[28]
2010 27.4[29]
2012 24.5[4]

Beginning with its independence from the USSR in 1991, Kazakhstan began to replace abortion with other methods of contraception.[7] The relevant legislation in Kazakhstan has been influenced by the country's Soviet past.[2] Despite the decline in abortions in favor of other contraceptive methods,[30][31][2] abortion remained the most widely used contraceptive method in the 1990s.[2] Since the country's independence, abortions are increasingly performed in the private sector, leading the official rate of abortions to decline.[6]

A study based on the data between 1995 and 1999 found that abortions are mostly performed in urban areas, the then capital Almaty and the North and East regions of the country.[32] Most women having abortions were ethnic Russians . Areas with a higher rate of education saw a greater fall in the use of abortion.[33] Married women make up almost the entirety of women who have abortions since premarital sex is much less common in predominantly Muslim countries. The reason for having an abortion is primarily to limit births as well as to increase the time between births.[34] First pregnancies are rarely aborted in the country.[31]

The probability that a pregnancy would be aborted was 36.8%. The percentage of pregnancies resulting from contraceptive failure leading to abortion was 67%. The Demographic and Health Survey of Kazakhstan asked 3771 women if they would have an abortion in case of accidental pregnancy and 35.6% responded in the affirmative, 20.6% were not sure and the rest replied in the negative.[35]

In February 1994, a family planning program was approved which established a family planning service in medical institutions to try to reduce abortions and maternal mortality.[2]

Between 1993 and 1997, the United Nations funded reproductive health in the country, with one of its primary aims being reducing the abortion rate.[36]

Between 1995 and 1999 abortions were officially free, but in practice, people were obliged to pay, with prices between 8 and US$20.[37] These payments were generally not made in rural areas.[5] In 1995, a wide-reaching campaign warned of the health risk of illegal abortions.[36]

The laws remained essentially the same between 1996 and 2013.[4]

In 1999, the vacuum aspiration technique was used in nearly half of all abortions in Kazakhstan.

In 2000, a country-wide government program was approved to reduce abortions. The program trained medical professionals and informed the population about other contraceptive methods.[30]

A UN report published in 2002 explained that abortions were available on request during the first trimester, with no particular motivation required; between 12 and 28 weeks, the service is available if certain social or medical circumstances are present.[2]

In 2001, a Health Ministry order was approved on the medical reasons and regulations of abortion.[38] In 2009, the ministry approved Order 626,[39] which was modified in 2012 regarding the following aspects:

Conditions for abortion in 2009[38] Conditions for abortion in 2012[39]
Up to 12 weeks:
  • Upon request

Between 12 and 22 weeks, on social grounds, including:

  • Death of the husband during pregnancy
  • Incarceration of the woman or her husband
  • Unemployment of the woman or her husband
  • If the woman is unmarried
  • Deprivation or limitation of parental rights
  • When the pregnancy is a result of rape
  • If the woman has refugee or forced migrant status
  • If there is a disabled child in the family
  • Divorce during the pregnancy
  • If there are 4 or more children in the family
  • In case of fetal malformation

With no gestational limit:

  • If there are medical indications threatening the life of the pregnant woman, with her consent

For minors under 16, parental consent is required.

The state subsidizes abortions performed for social or medical reasons.

 Up to 12 weeks:
  • Upon request

Between 12 and 22 weeks, on social grounds, including:

  • Death of the husband during pregnancy
  • Incarceration of the woman or her husband
  • Unemployment of the woman or her husband
  • If the woman is unmarried
  • Deprivation or limitation of parental rights
  • When the pregnancy is a result of rape
  • If the woman has refugee or forced migrant status
  • If there is a disabled child in the family
  • Divorce during the pregnancy
  • If there are 4 or more children in the family
  • The patient is under 18 years of age

With no gestational limit:

  • If there are medical indications threatening the life of the pregnant woman, with her consent
  • In case of fetal malformation

For minors under 18, parental consent is required.

The state subsidizes abortions performed for social or medical reasons.

Legal abortions are practiced in private centers,[40] Women's Consulting Centers, Maternity Houses, Polyclinics with Women's Consulting Offices, many hospitals and Family Group Practices. The successful reduction of the abortion rate was due to the efforts in education, information and communication (like the Red Apple campaign on social media) which encouraged the population to use modern contraceptive methods. However, the abortion rate among Russians went down 33% while among Kazakhs, the decrease was much smaller.[41]

The medications used to induce abortion are Mifepristone and Misoprostol.[38][39]

There is a high rate of abortion among teenagers.[42][43][44]

The Kazakh Association on Sexual and Reproductive Health stated in 2009 and 2012 that medical abortions were only practiced in Almaty in private centers and that the establishment of services in state medical centers was being considered the latter year. It also declared that in 2007, there were 11,666 abortions in the city of Almaty, of which 74.3% were performed using dilation and curettage.[38] The average price among private practitioners was 5000 KZT ($41) in 2009[38] and $200 in 2012.[39]

A 2007 investigation concluded that the high abortion rate could be caused by limited access to health services, especially in rural regions. Intrauterine devices are commonly used as a contraceptive in Kazakhstan without professional help, as there are few available methods. This may be why the primary contraceptive method used in the country is abortion.[45]

A 2010 report found that the state provided no information on sexual and reproductive health, including abortion.[46]

A 2011 report found that the rates of teenage pregnancy and back-alley abortions were leading to deaths, primarily caused by a lack of specific preventative programs.[47]

Statistics

Historical abortion statistics

Definition of table data:[48]

  • Live births.
  • Abortions, reported includes legal reported induced abortions.
  • Abortions (AWR) are combined reported and estimated abortion occurrences from the Abortion Worldwide Report and working papers.
  • Abortions, residents, in country only includes reported abortions obtained within the country by residents only.
  • Abortions, residents, obtained abroad includes reported abortions by country residents obtained in other countries.
  • Abortions, residents, total includes reported abortions by residents, obtained both within the country and abroad.
  • Fetal deaths generally includes fetal deaths or stillbirths of at least 20 weeks` gestation.
  • Miscarriages generally includes spontaneous fetal losses/ abortions, fetal deaths, or stillbirths, regardless of gestation period.
  • Abortion ratio is abortions per 1000 live births.
  • Abortion % is abortions as percentage of pregnancies (excluding fetal deaths/miscarriages).
  • Abortion rate, residents is abortions by residency per 1000 women ages 15–49.
  • Abortion rate, occurrences (AWR) is abortion occurrences from Abortion Worldwide Report figures per 1000 women ages 15–39.


year* live births abortions, reported abortions (AWR) abortions, residents, in country only abortions, residents, obtained abroad abortions, residents, total abortions, illegal miscarriages fetal deaths abortion ratio abortion % abortion

rate, residents

 abortion

rate, occurrences (AWR)

residents, in/out of country all in country residents, in/out of country all in country
1925 582 582 (582) 582
1926
1927 2,360 2,360 (2,360) 2,360
1928 6,127 6,127 (6,127) 6,127
1929 1,950 1,950 (1,950) 1,950
1930 2,660 2,660 (2,660) 2,660
1931 2,190 2,190 (2,190) 2,190
1932 840 840 (840) 840
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940 (254,000)
1941
1942 11,214 11,214 (11,214) 11,214 1,675
1943 1,600 1,600 (1,600) 1,600
1944 7,811 7,811 (7,811) 7,811 1,278
1945 10,303 10,303 (10,303) 10,303 1,684
1946 15,901 15,901 (15,901) 15,901 3,866
1947 16,263 16,263 (16,263) 16,263 3,096
1948 4,079 4,079 (4,079) 4,079 4,079
1949
1950 (251,900)
1951 (270,000)
1952 (262,600)
1953 (260,300)
1954 (275,700)
1955 (299,300) (25,000)
1956 (304,800) (58,000)
1957 (326,100) (101,000)
1958 (355,300) (164,000)
1959 (349,100) (228,000)
1960 371,828 (335,000)
1961 377,002 (363,000)
1962 368,298 (379,000)
1963 352,400 (388,000)
1964 330,511 (389,000)
1965 320,585 (404,000)
1966 313,465 (392,000)
1967 307,197 (381,000)
1968 302,022 (372,000)
1969 302,179 (370,000)
1970 306,652 (372,000)
1971 317,423 382,702 382,702 (382,702) 382,702 1,205.7 1,205.7 54.66 54.66
1972 318,551 383,764 383,764 (383,764) 383,764 1,204.7 1,204.7 54.64 54.64
1973 321,075 387,626 387,626 (387,626) 387,626 1,207.3 1,207.3 54.70 54.70
1974 338,291 377,070 377,070 (377,070) 377,070 1,114.6 1,114.6 52.71 52.71
1975 343,668 390,809 390,809 (390,809) 390,809 1,137.2 1,137.2 53.21 53.21 124.0
1976 350,362 395,712 395,712 (395,712) 395,712 1,129.4 1,129.4 53.04 53.04
1977 349,379 406,247 406,247 (406,247) 406,247 1,162.8 1,162.8 53.76 53.76
1978 355,337 392,734 392,734 (392,734) 392,734 1,105.2 1,105.2 52.50 52.50
1979 354,320 380,692 380,692 (380,692) 380,692 1,074.4 1,074.4 51.79 51.79
1980 356,013 378,125 378,125 (378,125) 378,125 1,062.1 1,062.1 51.51 51.51 108.3
1981 367,950 359,824 359,824 (359,824) 359,824 977.9 977.9 49.44 49.44
1982 373,416 364,087 364,087 (364,087) 364,087 975.0 975.0 49.37 49.37 103.3
1983 378,577 362,371 362,371 (362,371) 362,371 957.2 957.2 48.91 48.91
1984 389,091 349,366 349,366 (349,366) 349,366 897.9 897.9 47.31 47.31 98.1
1985 396,929 367,334 367,334 (367,334) 367,334 925.4 925.4 48.06 48.06
1986 410,846 332,055 332,055 (332,055) 332,055 808.2 808.2 44.70 44.70 91.5
1987 417,139 329,819 329,819 (329,819) 329,819 790.7 790.7 44.15 44.15
1988 407,116 362,596 362,596 (362,596) 362,596 890.6 890.6 47.11 47.11 97.1
1989 380,849 358,124 358,124 (358,124) 358,124 3,916 940.3 940.3 48.46 48.46 72.4 101.58
1990 362,081 355,173 355,173 (355,173) 355,173 3,692 980.9 980.9 49.52 49.52 92.4 100.03
1991 353,174 358,484 358,484 (358,484) 358,484 3,474 1,015.0 1,015.0 50.37 50.37 87.7 100.40
1992 337,612 346,405 346,405 (346,405) 346,405 3,184 1,026.0 1,026.0 50.64 50.64 84.1 96.76
1993 315,482 290,703 290,703 (290,703) 290,703 2,710 921.5 921.5 47.96 47.96 70.1 81.93
1994 305,624 261,834 261,834 (261,834) 261,834 2,705 856.7 856.7 46.14 46.14 63.1 75.39
1995 276,125 224,100 224,100 (224,100) 224,100 2,455 811.6 811.6 44.80 44.80 54.3 66.14
1996 253,175 194,187 194,187 (194,187) 194,187 2,365 767.0 767.0 43.41 43.41 47.2 58.11
1997 232,356 156,751 156,751 (156,751) 156,751 2,206 674.6 674.6 40.28 40.28 38.3 47.61
1998 222,380 149,248 149,248 (149,248) 149,248 2,055 671.1 671.1 40.16 40.16 36.7 46.01
1999 211,815 138,197 138,197 (138,197) 138,197 1,899 652.4 652.4 39.48 39.48 34.0 42.92
2000 217,379 134,111 134,111 (134,111) 134,111 1,812 616.9 616.9 38.15 38.15 32.8 41.58
2001 220,748 136,787 136,787 (136,787) 136,787 1,719 619.7 619.7 38.26 38.26 33.2 42.22
2002 227,169 124,523 124,523 (124,523) 124,523 1,788 1,748 548.2 548.2 35.41 35.41 30.0 38.10
2003 246,933 127,180 127,180 (127,180) 127,180 1,751 1,768 515.0 515.0 34.00 34.00 35.0 38.49
2004 270,737 129,495 129,495 (129,495) 129,495 1,873 1,729 478.3 478.3 32.35 32.35 30.4 38.66
2005 278,977 125,654 125,654 (125,654) 125,654 2,138 1,899 450.4 450.4 31.05 31.05 29.1 37.00
2006 278,977 130,599 130,599 (130,599) 130,599 2,066 468.1 468.1 31.89 31.89 30.1 37.85
2007 321,963 133,097 133,097 (133,097) 133,097 2,171 413.4 413.4 29.25 29.25 31.1 38.02
2008 339,269 123,992 123,992 (123,992) 123,992 4,021 365.5 365.5 26.77 26.77 28.1 34.99
2009 357,552 113,320 113,320 (113,320) 113,320 3,713 316.9 316.9 24.07 24.07 24.7 31.67
2010 367,752 106,074 106,074 (106,074) 106,074 3,488 288.4 288.4 22.39 22.39 23.0 29.37
2011 372,801 95,288 95,288 (95,288) 95,288 3,285 255.6 255.6 20.36 20.36 24.2 26.27
2012 381,005 95,654 95,654 (95,654) 95,654 3,453 251.1 251.1 20.07 20.07 24.2 26.43
2013 387,227 84,265 106,000 (84,265) 84,265 3,206 217.6 217.6 17.87 17.87 18.4 29.43
2014 399,951 83,709 83,709 (83,709) 83,709 3,371 209.3 209.3 17.31 17.31 23.35
2015 398,073 81,440 81,440 (81,440) 81,440 2,344 204.6 204.6 16.98 16.98 22.82
2016 400,694 78,857 78,857 78,857 78,857 2,382 196.8 196.8 16.44 16.44
2017 390,262 80,328 80,328 80,328 80,328 2,321 205.8 205.8 17.07 17.07
2018 397,799 (80,000) 2,257
2019 (80,000)

*last updated 14 January 2020

Abortions by region
Region[49] Year*
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Almaty (city) 14,421 10,013 11,037 17,487 16,000 16,100
Astana (city) 8,113 9,600
CENTRAL/EAST KAZAKHSTAN 34,400 33,126 29,700
East Kazakhstan 18,039 16,600
Karagnandinskaya 16,400 16,700 10,300 13,100
NORTH KAZAKHSTAN 32,898 29,800
Akmolinskaya 11,700 10,200
Kostanayskaya 8,200
North Kazakhstan 7,608 7,660 6,300
Pavlodarskaya 5,100
SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN 20,294 20,900
Almatinskaya 13,249 5,000 4,800
Kyzylordinskaya 2,801 1,700
South Kazakhstan 7,758 9,200
Zhambylskaya 5,200
WEST KAZAKHSTAN 17,549 17,700
Aktyubinskaya 3,900
Atyrauskaya 1,957 1,700
Mangistauskaya 3,400
West Kazakhstan 7,000 15,700 8,700
KAZAKHSTAN TOTAL 138,197 134,111 136,787 124,523 127,180 129,495 125,654 130,599 133,097 124,000

*last updated 11 April 201

References and notes
  1. "Country profile: Kazakhstan". Global Abortion Policies Database. 2018-04-05. Archived from the original on 2018-04-05. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  2. United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2002). "Abortion Policies: A Global Review" (PDF).
  3. Kazakhstan Association on Sexual and Reproductive Health 2012, p. 44.
  4. "Abortion Policies and Reproductive Health around the World". United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2014. p. 21. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  5. Olds & Westoff 2004, p. 33.
  6. Westoff 2000, p. 2.
  7. Westoff 2000, p. 1.
  8. Michaels, pp. 307-308.
  9. Michaels, p. 310.
  10. Michaels, p. 313.
  11. Michaels, p. 312.
  12. Michaels, p. 314.
  13. Michaels, p. 315.
  14. Michaels, p. 316.
  15. Michaels, p. 308.
  16. Michaels, p. 318.
  17. Michaels, pp. 318-319.
  18. Michaels, p. 319.
  19. Michaels, p. 317.
  20. Michaels, pp. 319-320.
  21. Michaels, p. 320.
  22. Michaels, pp. 323-324.
  23. Michaels, pp. 324-325.
  24. Michaels, p. 326.
  25. Michaels, pp. 326-327.
  26. "World Abortion Policies 1999". United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Archived from the original on 2004-08-15.
  27. "World Abortion Policies 2007 (wall chart)" (PDF). United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
  28. "World Abortion Policies 2011 (wall chart)". United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  29. "World Abortion Policies 2013 (wall chart)". United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  30. Olds & Westoff 2004, p. 29.
  31. Westoff 2000, p. 27.
  32. Westoff 2000, p. 8.
  33. Westoff 2000, p. 9.
  34. Westoff 2000, p. 18.
  35. Westoff 2000, p. 16.
  36. Olds & Westoff 2004, p. 32.
  37. Olds & Westoff 2004, p. 30.
  38. Kazakhstan Association on Sexual and Reproductive Health (2009). "Abortion legislation in Europe" (PDF). IPPF European Network (8th ed.). Brussels. pp. 45–46.
  39. Kazakhstan Association on Sexual and Reproductive Health 2012, pp. 44-45
  40. Olds & Westoff 2004, p. 31.
  41. Olds & Westoff 2004, p. 34.
  42. Committee on the Rights of the Child (2003). "CONSIDERATION OF REPORTS SUBMITTED BY STATES PARTIES UNDER ARTICLE 44 OF THE CONVENTION - Kazakhstan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  43. Committee on the Rights of the Child (2007). "CONSIDERATION OF REPORTS SUBMITTED BY STATES PARTIES UNDER ARTICLE 44 OF THE CONVENTION - Kazakhstan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  44. Committee on the Rights of the Child (2015). "Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Kazakhstan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  45. "Concluding comments of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: Kazakhstan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2007. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  46. "Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 40 of the Covenant - Kazakhstan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2011. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  47. "Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 40 of the Covenant - Kazakhstan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2011. Retrieved 2019-07-11.
  48. "Historical abortion statistics, Kazakhstan". www.johnstonsarchive.net. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  49. "Kazakhstan abortions and live births by region, 1999-2008". www.johnstonsarchive.net. Retrieved 2020-03-31.
  1. Other sources refer to Order 626 of the Ministry of Health (October 2009), “On approving realisation rules in relation to artificial termination of pregnancy”, and RK “Populations Health and Healthcare System” Code, Article 104.
  2. Page 3 of the Indications of the Ministry of Health.
  3. Page 5 of the Indications of the Ministry of Health.
  4. Page 6 of the Indications of the Ministry of Health.
  5. Page 9 of the Reproductive Rights Law; page 2 of the Indications of the Ministry of Health.
  6. Page 9 of the Reproductive Rights Law.
  7. Article 117 of the Penal Code.
  8. Some reports refer to abortions being available in a variety of locations, while the Kazakh Association on Sexual and Reproductive Health mentions only Almaty and the private sector.
  9. Section 140 of the Penal Code.

Bibliography
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