Battle of Toulon (1744)

The naval Battle of Toulon or Battle of Cape Sicié took place on 22–23 February 1744 (NS)[note 1] in the Mediterranean off the French coast near Toulon. A combined Franco-Spanish fleet engaged Britain's Mediterranean Fleet. The French fleet, not officially at war with Great Britain, only joined the fighting late, when it was clear that the greatly outnumbered Spanish fleet had gained tactical control of the battlefield. With the French intervention, the British fleet was forced to withdraw.[7]

Battle of Toulon
Part of the War of the Austrian Succession
Battalla de Toulon, Naval Museum of Madrid
Date 22 February 1744[note 1] Location Off Toulon, Mediterranean Sea Result Tactically indecisive[1] Strategic Franco-Spanish victory[1]
Belligerents
Spain  France	Great Britain
Commanders and leaders
Juan Navarro Claude Bruyère	Thomas Mathews Richard Lestock
Strength
27 ships of the line 3 frigates 3 smaller warships	30 ships of the line 3 frigates 6 smaller warships
Casualties and losses
149 killed 467 wounded 1 ship of the line scuttled[2][3][note 2]	142 killed 196 wounded[4][5] 10 ships damaged[6] 1 fireship sunk[3]

In Britain the battle was regarded as the most mortifying defeat;[8][9] the Franco-Spanish fleet successfully ended the British blockade[10] and inflicted considerably more damage to the British than they received, causing the British to withdraw to Menorca in need of heavy repairs. The retreat of Admiral Mathews' fleet left the Mediterranean Sea temporarily under Spanish control, allowing the Spanish navy to deliver troops and supplies to the Spanish army in Italy, decisively swinging the war there in their favour.[11][12]

Thomas Mathews was tried by court-martial in 1746 on charges of having brought the fleet into action in a disorganised manner, of having fled the enemy, and of having failed to bring the enemy to action when the conditions were advantageous.[6] He was one of seven ship captains[note 3] dismissed from service.[6]

In English-language literature the battle is viewed as indecisive at best[13][14] and a fiasco at worst.[15]

Prelude

The British fire ship HMS Anne Galley, aflame and sinking short of her intended target, the Spanish flagship Real Felipe

The War of the Austrian Succession broke out in 1740, over whether Maria Theresa could inherit the throne of the Habsburg Monarchy. Britain supported Austria and the claim of Maria Theresa, whilst Spain and France supported the rival claim of Charles, Elector of Bavaria. Britain and Spain had been at war in the Americas since 1739, in the War of Jenkins' Ear. Britain and France were not officially at war at the start of 1744, although they were on opposite sides of the wider conflict and France was secretly planning an invasion of Britain.

Thomas Mathews had had a solid but unspectacular career as a naval captain, rising to command a small squadron before retiring from the navy in 1724. He returned to naval service in 1736, but only in a shore-based administrative role. The outbreak of war with Spain and the imminent threat of war with France led to Mathews' return to active service after years of effective retirement, with a promotion directly to Vice-Admiral of the Red[note 4] on 13 March 1741.[16] He was given command of a fleet in the Mediterranean, and with it an appointment as plenipotentiary to Charles Emmanuel III, King of Sardinia (who supported Maria Theresa's claim), and the other courts of Italy.[16] The choice of Mathews for the role was somewhat unexpected, as he was not especially distinguished, and had not served in the navy for a number of years.[16]

The second in command in the Mediterranean was Rear-Admiral Richard Lestock.[note 4] Mathews knew Lestock from their time at Chatham Dockyard, when Mathews had been the Commissioner and Lestock had commanded the guard ships stationed in the Medway.[16] The two had not been on good terms, and Lestock had hoped to receive the command of the Mediterranean fleet himself – he had been acting commander for several weeks after Nicholas Haddock was recalled. On receiving the Mediterranean posting, Mathews requested that Lestock be recalled to Britain. Lestock also asked to be reassigned, requesting the command of the West Indies fleet instead. The Admiralty declined to act upon either request.[16]

The two men continued their disagreements during their time in the Mediterranean, although Mathews' preoccupation with his diplomatic duties meant they did not break out into open argument.[16] In 1742 Mathews sent a small squadron to Naples to compel King Charles, later the King of Spain, to remain neutral in the war. It was commanded by Commodore William Martin, who refused to enter into negotiations, and gave the king half an hour in which to return an answer. The Neapolitans were forced to agree to the British demands.[17]

In June 1742 a squadron of Spanish galleys, which had taken refuge in the Bay of Saint-Tropez, was burnt by the fire ships of Mathews' fleet. In the meantime a Spanish squadron had taken refuge in Toulon, and was watched by the British fleet from Hyères. The British began a naval blockade outside Toulon, allowing French vessels to pass but preventing the Spanish from leaving.

Battle

On 21 February 1744[note 1] the Spaniards left Toulon and put to sea, in company with a French force.[16] Mathews ordered the British fleet to follow their course.[16] The Franco-Spanish fleet numbered 27 ships of the line and three frigates, whilst the British had 30 ships of the line and three frigates of their own.[18] The British ships were generally larger and more heavily armed than their opponents, carrying over 25% more cannons overall.[18] Both fleets were organised in the traditional three squadrons of van, centre and rear, with the Spanish forming the rear squadron of the allied fleet.

The winds were light, making manoeuvring difficult and causing the fleets to become spread out. In the evening of 22 February the fleets began to approach each other and prepare for battle, with Mathews signalling his ships to form line of battle.[6] The line had still not been properly formed as night fell, leading Mathews to hoist the signal to come to (halt by turning into the wind), intending for his ships to first finish forming the line.[6] The van and centre squadrons did so, but Lestock, commanding the rear, obeyed the order to come to immediately, without having formed the line.[6]

Map of the battle

By daybreak on 23 February, the rear of the British fleet was separated by a considerable distance from the van and centre.[6] Mathews signalled for Lestock to make more sail, reluctant to start the attack with his ships still disorganised, but the slowness of Lestock to respond caused the Franco-Spanish force to start to slip away to the south.[6] Mathews feared that they would escape him and pass through the Strait of Gibraltar to join the French force gathered at Brest for the planned invasion of Britain.[6]

Knowing that his duty was to attack, Mathews hoisted the signal to engage the enemy aboard his flagship HMS Namur, and at one o'clock left the line to attack the Spanish rear, followed by Captain James Cornewall aboard HMS Marlborough.[6] In doing so, the signal to form the line of battle was left flying. The two signals flying simultaneously created confusion. A number of British commanders, including Captain Edward Hawke, followed Mathews' example, but many did not.[6] His other commanders were either too uncertain, or in the case of Lestock, allegedly pleased to see Mathews in difficulty and unwilling to help him.

Heavily outnumbered and unsupported, Namur and Marlborough managed to successfully engage their opposite numbers in the enemy line, but suffered considerable damage.[6] At the rear of the ships being attacked, five more Spanish ships followed, at some distance due to the slow speed of the one ahead: Brillante, San Fernando, Halcon, Soberbio and Santa Isabel. There was some exchange of fire between these and the lead ships of the English rear. Most of Lestock's ships in the rear remained inactive during the battle.

The main action was being fought around Real Felipe, Navarro's flagship. Marlborough purposefully crossed the Spanish line, but suffered such severe damage that she was deemed to be on the verge of sinking. The Hercules, astern of the Real Felipe, vigorously fought off three British ships. The Constante, immediately ahead of the flagship, repelled the attack of a British ship-of-the-line, which was promptly replaced by two more, with which she continued to fight for nearly three hours.

The French ships came about at 5 o'clock to aid the Spanish, a manoeuvre interpreted by some of the British commanders to be an attempt to double the British line and surround them.[6] With no orders from Mathews and a lack of clear instructions or command structure, the British line broke, and began to flee to the northwest.[6] The Spanish, still on the defensive, neglected to capture the defenceless Marlborough, though they did retake the Poder, which had previously surrendered to the British.[6]

The Franco-Spanish fleet then resumed their flight to the southwest, and it was not until 23 February that the British were able to regroup and resume the pursuit. They caught up with the enemy fleet again, which was hampered by towing damaged ships, and the unmanoeuvrable Poder was abandoned and scuttled by the French.[2] By now the British had closed to within a few miles of the enemy fleet, but Mathews again signalled for the fleet to come to. The following day, 24 February, the Franco-Spanish fleet was almost out of sight, and Mathews returned to Hyères, and sailed from there to Port Mahon, where he arrived in early March.[6]

Aftermath

The 90-gun HMS Marlborough, heavily damaged after the battle

Tactically, the battle was indecisive, but France and Spain both made significant strategic gains as a result. The escaping Franco-Spanish fleet was able to deliver troops and supplies to the Spanish army in Italy, decisively swinging the war there in their favour.[6] The Spanish admiral Juan José Navarro was created Marquess of Victory after his conduct of the battle.[19][20] The battle was followed by a French declaration of war on Britain and Hanover in March. In May the French also declared war on Maria Theresa and invaded the Austrian Netherlands, having abandoned their earlier plan to invade Britain.[9]

These were significant consequences, resulting from the failure of the British fleet to bring a decisive action against a foe of inferior number. This was widely remarked on in Britain, leading to the House of Commons petitioning King George II for a public enquiry. This was held, and a dozen captains were tried by court-martial, seven were cashiered for failing to do their "utmost" to engage the enemy and support the already-engaged ships, as required by the Articles of War (two were acquitted, one died before trial).[6] Lestock was also tried, but was able to place the blame on Mathews, and with the help of powerful supporters in government, was acquitted and offered further employment.[6] Mathews was also tried by court-martial in 1746, on charges of having brought the fleet into action in a disorganised manner, of having fled the enemy, and of having failed to bring the enemy to action when the conditions were advantageous.[6] In his defence it was shown that he had fought bravely, but in June 1747 the court judged the charges were proven, and Mathews was cashiered (dismissed from the service).[6]

The judgements were unpopular with the public, with a 1758 history declaring:

The nation could not be persuaded that the vice-admiral ought to be exculpated for not fighting, and the admiral cashiered for fighting.[21]

The court-martial process was hampered by interference from politicians and civilian courts, so in 1749 Parliament amended the 1661 Articles of War to enhance the autonomy of naval courts. It also amended the section that read:

Every Captaine and all other Officers Mariners and Souldiers of every Ship Frigott or Vessell of War that shall in time of any fight or engagement withdraw or keepe backe or not come into the fight and engage and do his utmost to take fire kill and endamage the Enemy Pirate or Rebells and assist and relieve all and every of His Majesties Ships shall for such offence of cowardice or disaffection be tried and suffer paines of death or other punishment as the circumstances of the offence shall deserve and the Court martiall shall judge fitt.[22]

Article XII in the 1749 Articles of War would instead read:

Every Person in the Fleet, who thro’ Cowardice, Negligence or Disaffection, shall in Time of Action withdrawn, or keep back, or not come into the Fight or Engagement, or shall not do his utmost to take or destroy every Ship which it shall be his Duty to engage, and to assist and relieve all and every of his Majesty's Ships, or those of his Allies, which it shall be his Duty to assist and relieve, every such Person so offending and being convicted thereof by the Sentence of a Court Martial, shall suffer Death.[23]

This change would lead to the execution of Admiral Byng in 1757.[24]

Order of battle

Franco-Spanish fleet[18]
Ship	Rate	Guns	Commander	Notes
Van
Borée	Third-rate	64	Captain Marqueu
Toulouse	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Dárton
Tigre	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Saurin
Éole	Third-rate	64	Captain D'Alver
Alcyon	Fourth-rate	56	Captain Lancel
Duc D'Orléans	Third-rate	68	Captain Dornés
Espoir	Third-rate	74	Captain D'Hericourt (Ensign of Gavaret)
Centre
Trident	Third-rate	64	Captain Caylus
Heureux	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Gramier
Achiléon	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Vaudevil
Solide	Third-rate	64	Captain Chateauneuf
Diamant	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Manak
Ferme	Third-rate	70	Captain Gorgues
Terrible	Third-rate	74	Vice-Admiral De Court Captain Jonquiere
Sancti Espiritus	Third-rate	68	Captain Poison
Sérieux	Third-rate	64	Captain Cahyla
Rear
Oriente	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Joaquín Villena
América	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Aníbal Petrucci
Neptuno	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Enrique Olivares †
Poder	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Rodrigo de Urrutia. (POW)	Captured by the British Recaptured and scuttled by the French
Constante	Third-rate	70	Captain Agustín Iturriaga †
Real Felipe	First-rate	110	Admiral Jose Navarro Captain Nicolas Geraldino †
Hércules	Third-rate	64	Captain Cosme Álvarez
Brillante	Fourth-rate	60	Captain don Blas de la Barreda
Alcón	Fourth-rate	60	Captain José Rentería
San Fernando	Third-rate	64	Count of Vegaflorida
Soberbio	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Juan Valdés
Santa Isabel	Third-rate	80	Captain Ignacio Dautevil

4 frigates[25]
4 fire ships[25]

British Fleet[18]
Ship	Rate	Guns	Commander	Notes
Van
HMS Chatham	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Richard Hughes
HMS Nassau	Third-rate	70	Captain James Lloyd
HMS Chichester	Third-rate	80	Captain William Dilkes
HMS Boyne	Third-rate	80	Captain Rowland Frogmore
HMS Barfleur	Second-rate	90	Rear-Admiral William Rowley (Red) Captain Meyrick de L'Angle
HMS Ranelagh	Third-rate	80	Captain Henry Osborn
HMS Berwick	Third-rate	70	Captain Edward Hawke
HMS Stirling Castle	Third-rate	70	Captain Thomas Cooper
HMS Bedford	Third-rate	70	Captain Hon. George Townshend
HMS Feversham	Fifth-rate	40
HMS Winchelsea	Sixth-rate	20
Centre
HMS Dragon	Fourth-rate	60	Captain Charles Watson
HMS Royal Oak	Third-rate	70	Captain Edmund Williams
HMS Princess	Third-rate	70	Captain Robert Pett
HMS Somerset	Third-rate	80	Captain George Slater
HMS Norfolk	Third-rate	80	Captain Hon. John Forbes
HMS Marlborough	Second-rate	90	Captain James Cornewall †
HMS Dorsetshire	Third-rate	80	Captain George Burrish
HMS Essex	Third-rate	70	Captain Richard Norris
HMS Rupert	Third-rate	60	Captain John Ambrose
HMS Namur (Flagship)	Second-rate	90	Admiral Thomas Mathews (Blue) Captain John Russell †
HMS Dursley Castle	Sixth-rate	20
HMS Anne Galley[26]	Fire ship	8	Captain Mackay †	Blew up by gunfire from Real Felipe
Sutherland	Hospital ship	18
Rear
HMS Salisbury	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Peter Osborne
HMS Romney	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Henry Godsalve
HMS Dunkirk	Third-rate	60	Captain Charles Wager Purvis
HMS Swiftsure	Third-rate	70	Captain George Berkeley
HMS Cambridge	Third-rate	80	Captain Charles Drummond
HMS Neptune	Second-rate	90	Vice-Admiral Richard Lestock (White) Captain George Stepney
HMS Torbay	Third-rate	80	Captain John Gascoigne
HMS Russell	Third-rate	80	Captain Robert Long
HMS Buckingham	Third-rate	70	Captain John Towry
HMS Elizabeth	Third-rate	70	Captain Joshua Lingen
HMS Kingston	Third-rate	60	Captain John Lovatt
HMS Oxford	Fourth-rate	50	Captain Harry Powlett
HMS Warwick	Third-rate	60	Captain Temple West
HMS Mercury	Fire ship	8

Notes

1. The dates of the battle were 22-23 February 1744 (New Style (NS)) according to the Gregorian calendar then used by France and Spain. The British still used the Julian calendar, which gave Old Style dates of 10-11 February 1744 (OS).
2. The Spanish ship of the line Poder being unable to keep up with the British ships that captured her, was retaken in the night by the French squadron. The French seeing the Poder as a liability, cast off and abandoned her, setting fire to her and causing an eventual explosion.
3. The rest of captains dismissed from service were Captain George Burrish of HMS Dorsetshire, John Ambrose of HMS Rupert, Edmund Williams of HMS Royal Oak, Richard Norris of HMS Essex, Thomas Cooper of HMS Stirling Castle, James Lloyd of HMS Nassau, and William Dilkes captain of HMS Chichester. See A political index to the histories of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol I. Beatson p. 329/330
4. By the time of the battle, Mathews had been promoted to Admiral of the Blue and Lestock to Vice-Admiral of the White.

References

1. Alastair/Callo p. 268
2. Lestock, however, still hung back; and all that was to get sufficiently near the flying enemy to retake the Poder, which, however, its crew(the French that recaptured her) had already abandoned and set on fire. Charles Duke Yonge, The history of the British navy: from the earliest period to the Present Time... p.207
3. Carlos Martínez-Valverde (1983): La campaña de don Juan José Navarro en el Mediterráneo y la batalla de Sicié (1742–1744) Revista de Historia Naval (in Spanish)
4. Allen, Joseph: Admirals Mathews and Lestock. The United service magazine, part 2, pp. 327–329. H. Colburn, 1842
5. Biggs, William: The military history of Europe: from the commencement of the war with Spain in 1739, to the treaty of Aix-la Chapelle in 1748 R. Baldwin, 1755, page 272
6. "Mathews, Thomas (1676–1751)". Dictionary of National Biography. 37. p. 45.
7. Black, p 94
8. In England, however, this disputed success was considered as the most mortifying defeat, and the complaints of the people knew no bounds. – The history of England from the earliest times to the death of George the Second, Vol III. Goldsmith/Coote p.73
9. Lindsay, p 430
10. Hattendorf, page 36
11. Dull, p.52
12. Mathews, Thomas (1676–1751). Dictionary of National Biography. 37. p. 45.
13. Waldegrave Head, p. 289
14. Roskill, p. 60
15. Willis, p. 62
16. "Mathews, Thomas (1676–1751)". Dictionary of National Biography. 37. p. 44.
17. "Martin, William (1696–1756)". Dictionary of National Biography. 37. p. 300.
18. Battles of the British Navy by Joseph Allen, Vol. I, p. 150. and Schomberg, I., Naval Chronology, App. 36, London, 1802
19. O'Donnell Duque de Estrada y Conde de Lucena, Hugo: El primer Marqués de La Victoria, personaje silenciado en la reforma dieciochesca de la Armada. Real Academia de la Historia, 2004, p. 63. ISBN 84-96849-08-2 (in Spanish)
20. Vaca de Osma, José: Carlos III. Ediciones Rialp, 1997, p. 63. ISBN 84-321-3141-5 (in Spanish)
21. The Naval History of Great Britain, 4 vols., 1758, 4.270
22. 'Charles II, 1661: An Act for the Establishing Articles and Orders for the regulateing and better Government of His Majesties Navies Ships of Warr & Forces by Sea.', Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80 (1819), pp. 311–314. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47293 Date accessed: 8 June 2010.
23. 'Admiral Byng's defence, as presented by him, and read in the Court January 18, 1757,... Containing a very particular account of the action on the 20th of May, 1756, off Cape Mola,...' John Byng, 1757, pp. 10–11.
24. Ware, Chris (2009). Admiral Byng: His Rise and Execution. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword Maritime. pp. 151–53. ISBN 1-84415-781-4.
25. Schomberg, I., Naval Chronology, App. 36, London, 1802
26. Ships of the Royal Navy:The Complete Record of All Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy J. Colledge, Ben Warlow p.17

Bibliography

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Toulon" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–99.
• Wilson, Alastair / F. Callo Joseph. Who's Who in Naval History, From 1550 to the present (Kindle Edition). Taylor & Francis Publishing (2004). ISBN 978-0-415-30828-1
• R. Dull Jonathan. The Age of the Ship of the Line: The British and French Navies, 1650–1815 (Studies in War, Society, and the Military). University of Nebraska Press 2009. ISBN 080321930X
• Black, Jeremy. Britain as a military power 1688–1815. UCL Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-203-17355-8
• J. O. Lindsay. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol VII. "The Old Regime 1713–63". ISBN 0-521-04545-2
• Hattendorf, John: Naval policy and strategy in the Mediterranean: past, present, and future. Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 0-7146-8054-0
• Clowes, W. Laird. The Royal Navy : a history from the earliest times to the present, Vol III. London : S. Low, Marston and Company (1897).

Further reading

• Browning, Reed. The War of the Austrian Succession. Alan Sutton, 1994.
• Rodger N. A. M. Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815. Penguin Books, 2006.
• Roskill, Stephen Wentworth: H. M. S. Warspite: the story of a famous battleship. Collins, 1957.
• Waldegrave Head, Frederick: The fallen Stuarts. Issue 12 of Cambridge historical essays. Prince consort prize essays. Cambridge University Press, 1901.
• Laughton, J. K. (1894). "Mathews, Thomas (1676–1751)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 37. Oxford University Press.
• White, Henry: History of Great Britain and Ireland. Oxford University, 1868.
• Williams Damer Power, John: Bristol privateers and ships of war. J. W. Arrowsmith Ltd., 1930.
• Garner Thomas, Peter: Politics in eighteenth-century Wales. University of Wales Press, 1998. ISBN 0-7083-1444-9
• Crofts, Cecil H.: Britain on and Beyond the Sea – Being a Handbook to the Navy League Map of the World. Read Books, 2008. ISBN 1-4437-6614-3
• Willis, Sam: Fighting at sea in the eighteenth century: the art of sailing warfare. Boydell Press, 2008. ISBN 1-84383-367-0

External links

• La campaña de don Juan José Navarro en el Mediterráneo y la batalla de Sicié (1742–1744) (in Spanish)