Communist Party of Great Britain election results
This article lists the Communist Party of Great Britain's election results in UK parliamentary elections.
Summary of general election performance
| Year | Number of Candidates | Total votes | Average voters per candidate | Percentage of vote | Saved deposits[1] | Change (percentage points) | Number of MPs[2] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1922 | 5 | 30,684 | 6,137 | 0.2 | 3 | N/A | 1 |
| 1923 | 4 | 39,448 | 9,862 | 0.2 | 4 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1924 | 8 | 55,346 | 6,918 | 0.3 | 7 | +0.1 | 1 |
| 1929 | 25 | 50,634 | 2,205 | 0.2 | 4 | -0.1 | 0 |
| 1931 | 26 | 74,824 | 2,878 | 0.3 | 5 | +0.1 | 0 |
| 1935 | 2 | 27,177 | 13,589 | 0.1 | 2 | −0.2 | 1 |
| 1945 | 21 | 102,780 | 4,894 | 0.4 | 9 | +0.3 | 2 |
| 1950 | 100 | 91,765 | 918 | 0.3 | 3 | −0.1 | 0 |
| 1951 | 10 | 21,640 | 2,164 | 0.1 | 0 | −0.2 | 0 |
| 1955 | 17 | 33,144 | 1,950 | 0.1 | 2 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1959 | 18 | 30,896 | 1,716 | 0.1 | 1 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1964 | 36 | 46,442 | 1,290 | 0.2 | 0 | +0.1 | 0 |
| 1966 | 57 | 62,092 | 1,089 | 0.2 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1970 | 57 | 37,970 | 655 | 0.1 | 0 | −0.1 | 0 |
| 1974 February | 44 | 32,743 | 744 | 0.1 | 1 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1974 October | 29 | 17,426 | 601 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1979 | 38 | 16,858 | 444 | 0.1 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 |
| 1983 | 35 | 11,606 | 332 | 0.0 | 0 | −0.1 | 0 |
| 1987 | 19 | 6,078 | 320 | 0.0 | 0 | −0.1 | 0 |
Election results
By-elections, 1921–22
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position[3] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1921 Caerphilly by-election | Bob Stewart | 2,592 | 10.3 | 3 |
1922 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position[4] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bethnal Green North East | Walter Windsor | 5,659 | 35.3 | 2 |
| Dundee | Willie Gallacher | 5,906 | 5.0 | 6 |
| Greenock | Alec Geddes | 9,776 | 34.1 | 2 |
| Motherwell | Walton Newbold | 8,262 | 33.3 | 1 |
This list does not include Shapurji Saklatvala, a member of the party who was elected for the Labour Party,[5] nor Joe Vaughan who also stood for the Labour Party.[4]
1923 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position[6] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dundee | Willie Gallacher | 10,380 | 10.1 | 5 |
| Glasgow Kelvingrove | Aitken Ferguson | 10,021 | 39.0 | 2 |
| Greenock | Alec Geddes | 10,335 | 38.8 | 2 |
| Motherwell | Walton Newbold | 8,712 | 37.4 | 2 |
This list does not include William Paul, Morgan Philips Price, Shapurji Saklatvala, Joe Vaughan or Ellen Wilkinson, party members who stood for the Labour Party.[5]
1924 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position[7] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Battersea North | Shapurji Saklatvala | 15,096 | 50.9 | 1 |
| Bethnal Green South West | Joe Vaughan | 6,024 | 40.9 | 2 |
| Birmingham West | Robert Dunstan | 7,158 | 32.1 | 2 |
| Dundee | Bob Stewart | 8,340 | 6.7 | 5 |
| Greenock | Alec Geddes | 7,590 | 29.0 | 2 |
| Manchester Rusholme | William Paul | 5,328 | 20.2 | 3 |
| Nottingham East | Tom Mann | 2,606 | 10.8 | 3 |
| Streatham | Alfred Wall | 3,204 | 13.8 | 3 |
By-elections, 1924–29
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1928 Aberdeen North by-election | Aitken Ferguson | 2,618 | 12.9 | 3 |
1929 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberdeen North | Aitken Ferguson | 1,686 | 5.8 | 3 |
| Battersea North | Shapurji Saklatvala | 6,554 | 18.6 | 3 |
| Bethnal Green South West | Robert Dunstan | 1,368 | 7.7 | 3 |
| Bothwell | Helen Crawfurd | 1,677 | 5.5 | 3 |
| Caerphilly | Jock Wilson | 829 | 2.2 | 4 |
| Dundee | Bob Stewart | 6,160 | 3.6 | 5 |
| Dunfermline Burghs | Jack Leckie | 1,712 | 6.5 | 3 |
| Glasgow St Rollox | George Middleton | 613 | 1.9 | 3 |
| Greenock | Alec Geddes | 7,005 | 25.1 | 3 |
| Hackney South | J. T. Murphy | 331 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Hamilton | Frank Moore | 395 | 1.6 | 3 |
| Limehouse | Walter Tapsell | 245 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Manchester Platting | Joseph Vaughan | 401 | 1.0 | 3 |
| Mansfield | Rose Smith | 533 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Motherwell | Isabel Brown | 984 | 3.4 | 4 |
| Ogmore | John Ross Campbell | 1,525 | 3.8 | 4 |
| Rhondda East | Arthur Horner | 5,789 | 15.2 | 3 |
| Rutherglen | Alex Moffat | 842 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Seaham | Harry Pollitt | 1,431 | 2.9 | 4 |
| Sheffield Attercliffe | George Fletcher | 1,731 | 5.5 | 4 |
| Spen Valley | Shaukat Usmani | 242 | 0.6 | 3 |
| Tottenham South | Henry Sara | 490 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Wallsend | Wal Hannington | 744 | 1.8 | 4 |
| West Fife | Willie Gallacher | 6,040 | 20.5 | 2 |
| Wigan | Frank Bright | 1,307 | 2.8 | 3 |
By-elections, 1929–31
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1929 Leeds South East by-election | Bill Brain | 512 | 4.2 | 2 |
| 1929 Kilmarnock by-election | Isabel Brown | 1,448 | 4.4 | 3 |
| 1930 Sheffield Brightside by-election | J. T. Murphy | 1,084 | 4.4 | 4 |
| 1930 Glasgow Shettleston by-election | Shapurji Saklatvala | 1,459 | 5.8 | 4 |
| 1930 Shipley by-election | Willie Gallacher | 701 | 1.7 | 4 |
| 1930 Whitechapel and St Georges by-election | Harry Pollitt | 2,106 | 9.6 | 4 |
| 1931 Ogmore by-election | John Ross Campbell | 5,219 | 21.2 | 2 |
1931 general election
By-elections, 1931–35
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1932 Dunbartonshire by-election | Hughie McIntyre | 2,870 | 7.5 | 4 |
| 1933 Rhondda East by-election | Arthur Horner | 11,228 | 33.8 | 2 |
| 1933 Clay Cross by-election | Harry Pollitt | 3,434 | 10.8 | 3 |
| 1933 Skipton by-election | James Rushton | 704 | 1.7 | 4 |
| 1934 Hammersmith North by-election | Ted Bramley | 614 | 2.4 | 3 |
| 1934 Merthyr by-election | Wal Hannington | 3,409 | 9.5 | 4 |
1935 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rhondda East | Harry Pollitt | 13,655 | 38.2 | 2 |
| West Fife | Willie Gallacher | 13,462 | 37.4 | 1 |
By-elections, 1935–45
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1939 Stretford by-election | Eric Gower | 1,514 | 5.1 | 3 |
| 1940 Silvertown by-election | Harry Pollitt | 966 | 6.2 | 2 |
| 1940 Bow and Bromley by-election | Isabel Brown | 506 | 4.2 | 2 |
| 1941 Dunbartonshire by-election | Malcolm MacEwen | 3,862 | 15.0 | 2 |
1945 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abingdon | John Clement Dix Dunman | 1,668 | 4.4 | 4 |
| Birmingham Handsworth | Jessie Eden | 1,390 | 3.4 | 5 |
| Birmingham Sparkbrook | Rajani Palme Dutt | 1,853 | 7.6 | 3 |
| Coventry East | Bill Alexander | 3,986 | 7.0 | 3 |
| Glasgow Central | Bob Cooney | 2,709 | 12.7 | 3 |
| Glasgow Shettleston | Peter Kerrigan | 4,122 | 12.3 | 4 |
| Greenock | John Ross Campbell | 5,900 | 17.2 | 3 |
| Hackney South | William Rust | 4,891 | 24.2 | 3 |
| Harrow East | Gladys Driver | 3,493 | 5.9 | 4 |
| Hornsey | George John Jones | 10,058 | 21.5 | 3 |
| Kirkcaldy Burghs | John McArthur | 2,898 | 8.5 | 4 |
| Mile End | Phil Piratin | 5,075 | 47.6 | 1 |
| Preston | Pat J. Devine | 5,168 | 3.8 | 6 |
| Rhondda East | Harry Pollitt | 15,761 | 45.5 | 2 |
| Rossendale | Bill Whittaker | 1,663 | 4.6 | 4 |
| Sevenoaks | Ken Thompson | 676 | 1.6 | 4 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Howard Hill | 4,115 | 13.0 | 3 |
| Sheffield Hallam | Gordon Herbert Cree | 2,253 | 6.7 | 4 |
| Sunderland | Tommy Richardson | 4,501 | 3.3 | 5 |
| West Fife | Willie Gallacher | 17,636 | 42.2 | 1 |
| Westminster Abbey | Gabriel Billy Carritt | 2,964 | 17.6 | 3 |
By-elections, 1945–50
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1948 Wigan by-election | Thomas Rowlandson | 1,647 | 3.4 | 3 |
| 1948 Glasgow Gorbals by-election | Peter Kerrigan | 4,233 | 16.9 | 3 |
| 1949 St Pancras North by-election | John Mahon | 854 | 3.0 | 3 |
1950 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberdare | Alistair Wilson | 1,382 | 3.1 | 4 |
| Aberdeen North | Bob Cooney | 1,391 | 2.7 | 4 |
| Abingdon | John Clement Dix Dunman | 396 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Acton | Albert F. Papworth | 663 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Ashton-under-Lyne | H. H. Blackwell | 459 | 1.1 | 3 |
| Battersea North | John Mahon | 655 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Bedford | Betty Lynette Matthews | 207 | 0.5 | 4 |
| Bethnal Green | G. Midwater | 610 | 1.9 | 4 |
| Bexley | Charles Job | 481 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Birkenhead | S. Coulthard | 971 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Birmingham Northfield | Dick Etheridge | 479 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Birmingham Sparkbrook | Jim Crump | 355 | 0.9 | 3 |
| Birmingham Yardley | J. Falconer | 347 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Bradford East | H. Green | 543 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Brentford and Chiswick | Joseph Henry Parker | 401 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Bristol South East | Jack F. Webb | 524 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Burnley | Bill Whittaker | 526 | 1.0 | 3 |
| Chesterfield | Bas Barker | 554 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Cirencester and Tewkesbury | Wogan Philipps | 423 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Cities of London and Westminster | G. Billy Carritt | 888 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Clapham | G. M. Draper | 619 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Coventry East | Bill Alexander | 487 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Croydon West | Bob Jarvie | 336 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Dagenham | George Bridges | 883 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Deptford | Les Stannard | 562 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Don Valley | Sammy Taylor | 1,007 | 1.9 | 3 |
| Dover | Bob Morrison | 474 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Dundee East | Dave Bowman | 1,093 | 2.2 | 3 |
| East Ham South | E. Thomas | 401 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Edinburgh Central | Donald Renton | 646 | 1.9 | 4 |
| Eton and Slough | P. L. N. Smith | 614 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Eye | Lee Chadwick | 277 | 0.6 | 4 |
| Fulham East | R. Ellesmere | 399 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Glasgow Bridgeton | D. Kelly | 858 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Glasgow Gorbals | Peter Kerrigan | 2,426 | 5.9 | 3 |
| Glasgow Govan | William Lauchlan | 1,547 | 3.7 | 4 |
| Glasgow Scotstoun | Bob McIlhone | 1,088 | 2.6 | 4 |
| Glasgow Shettleston | Malcolm MacEwen | 1,678 | 4.1 | 3 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Robert F. Horne | 1,764 | 4.1 | 4 |
| Greenock | John Ross Campbell | 1,228 | 3.0 | 4 |
| Hackney South | John R. Betteridge | 2,199 | 3.8 | 4 |
| Hampstead | R. Gore | 1,603 | 2.8 | 4 |
| Harrow East | Bill Seaman | 633 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Hayes and Harlington | Frank Foster | 593 | 1.6 | 4 |
| Hendon North | Marjorie Pollitt | 918 | 2.0 | 4 |
| Hornsey | George John Jones | 1,191 | 1.9 | 4 |
| Huyton | Leo McGree | 387 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Ilford South | Dave Kelly | 913 | 1.6 | 4 |
| Islington South West | Alfred Bender | 834 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Kensington North | M. J. Eyre | 551 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Kettering | L. P. O'Connor | 368 | 0.6 | 4 |
| Kilmarnock | Isabel Brown | 860 | 2.2 | 4 |
| Leeds North East | Bert Ramelson | 612 | 1.6 | 4 |
| Leicester North East | Frederick C. Westacott | 327 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Lewisham South | J. W. Jones | 635 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Liverpool Scotland | Jack Coward | 615 | 1.4 | 3 |
| Manchester Blackley | Ben Ainley | 562 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Manchester Gorton | Syd Abbott | 873 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Manchester Wythenshawe | Frances Dean | 588 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Mansfield | Les Ellis | 482 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Middlesbrough East | N. Levy | 367 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Motherwell | R. Henderson | 1,007 | 2.4 | 4 |
| Neath | Alun Thomas | 1,584 | 3.5 | 4 |
| Newcastle-upon-Tyne East | R. McNair | 492 | 0.9 | 3 |
| Nottingham North West | Arthur West | 719 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Ogmore | Mavis Llewellyn | 1,691 | 3.5 | 3 |
| Oldham West | W. Mawdsley | 438 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Oxford | Ernest Keeling | 494 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Paddington North | Daniel Cohen | 417 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Peckham | T. Gibson | 886 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Poplar | H. Watson | 540 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Portsmouth West | George Swanton | 251 | 0.5 | 3 |
| Preston North | P. J. Devine | 366 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Rhondda East | Harry Pollitt | 4,463 | 12.7 | 2 |
| St Pancras North | T. Aherne | 967 | 1.9 | 4 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Howard Hill | 1,081 | 2.3 | 3 |
| Sheffield Hillsborough | M. Bennett | 759 | 1.5 | 3 |
| Sheffield Park | Arthur Fullard | 909 | 2.0 | 3 |
| Shipley | L. T. Robb | 237 | 0.6 | 4 |
| Southall | J. A. Purton | 839 | 1.7 | 4 |
| South Shields | F. O. Smith | 415 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Southwark | Joe Bent | 668 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Stalybridge and Hyde | D. P. Herrick | 389 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Stepney | Phil Piratin | 5,991 | 12.5 | 3 |
| Stirling and Falkirk | G. McAlister | 801 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Swindon | Ike Gradwell | 295 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Totnes | Edwin Tapscott | 423 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Tottenham | G. Cross | 802 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Vauxhall | Margot Heinemann | 508 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Warrington | James Joseph Grady | 496 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Wembley South | N. Gill | 430 | 1.0 | 4 |
| West Dunbartonshire | Finlay Hart | 1,198 | 2.9 | 3 |
| West Fife | Willie Gallacher | 9,301 | 21.6 | 3 |
| West Ham South | W. Norris | 730 | 1.6 | 4 |
| West Lothian | J. Borrowman | 664 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Wigan | Thomas Rowlandson | 1,243 | 2.4 | 4 |
| Willesden West | David Michaelson | 938 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Woodford | William George Philip Brooks | 827 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Woolwich East | Rajani Palme Dutt | 601 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Wycombe | Elizabeth Rose Leigh | 199 | 0.4 | 4 |
By-elections, 1950–51
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1950 Sheffield Neepsend by-election | Bill Moore | 729 | 2.4 | 3 |
1951 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dundee West | Dave Bowman | 1,508 | 2.7 | 3 |
| East Dunbartonshire | Arnold Henderson | 2,158 | 4.1 | 3 |
| Glasgow Gorbals | Peter Kerrigan | 2,553 | 6.2 | 3 |
| Hackney South | John Betteridge | 1,744 | 3.0 | 3 |
| Lewisham South | John Mahon | 578 | 1.2 | 3 |
| Rhondda East | Idris Cox | 2,948 | 8.6 | 3 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Howard Hill | 1,116 | 2.5 | 3 |
| Stepney | Ted Bramley | 3,436 | 7.3 | 3 |
| West Fife | William Lauchlan | 4,728 | 10.5 | 3 |
| Woodford | John Ross Campbell | 871 | 1.3 | 3 |
By-elections, 1951–55
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1954 Motherwell by-election | John Gollan | 1,457 | 4.3 | 3 |
1955 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Birmingham Perry Barr | Bert Pearce | 928 | 2.5 | 3 |
| Dundee West | Dave Bowman | 1,335 | 2.6 | 3 |
| East Dunbartonshire | Arnold Henderson | 2,448 | 4.9 | 3 |
| Glasgow Gorbals | Peter Kerrigan | 2,491 | 6.8 | 3 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Finlay Hart | 1,532 | 5.5 | 3 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Aubrey Morris | 1,525 | 3.4 | 4 |
| Hackney Central | John Betteridge | 1,530 | 3.5 | 3 |
| Hayes and Harlington | Frank Foster | 886 | 2.6 | 3 |
| Hornsey | George John Jones | 1,442 | 2.6 | 3 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 916 | 1.9 | 3 |
| Rhondda East | Annie Powell | 4,544 | 15.1 | 2 |
| St Pancras North | Jock Nicolson | 1,303 | 3.0 | 3 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Howard Hill | 1,461 | 3.5 | 3 |
| Southwark | Joe Bent | 959 | 2.4 | 3 |
| Stepney | Solly Kaye | 2,888 | 7.6 | 3 |
| West Fife | William Lauchlan | 4,728 | 10.5 | 3 |
| Wigan | Thomas Rowlandson | 1,567 | 3.4 | 3 |
By-elections, 1955–59
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1958 Wigan by-election | Mick Weaver | 972 | 2.5 | 3 |
1959 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Birmingham Perry Barr | Bert Pearce | 424 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Dundee West | Dave Bowman | 1,087 | 2.1 | 3 |
| East Dunbartonshire | Arnold Henderson | 2,200 | 4.0 | 3 |
| Glasgow Gorbals | Peter Kerrigan | 1,932 | 5.9 | 3 |
| Glasgow Govan | Gordon McLennan | 1,869 | 4.9 | 4 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Finlay Hart | 1,235 | 4.5 | 3 |
| Hayes and Harlington | Frank Foster | 527 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Hornsey | George John Jones | 1,107 | 2.0 | 4 |
| Neath | Jim David | 1,962 | 4.6 | 3 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 1,331 | 2.6 | 4 |
| Rhondda East | Annie Powell | 4,580 | 14.5 | 2 |
| St Pancras North | Jock Nicolson | 1,230 | 3.0 | 4 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Howard Hill | 1,373 | 3.3 | 3 |
| Southwark | Joe Bent | 1,395 | 3.6 | 3 |
| Stepney | Solly Kaye | 2,548 | 6.7 | 3 |
| West Fife | William Lauchlan | 3,828 | 8.4 | 4 |
| Wigan | Mick Weaver | 945 | 2.0 | 3 |
| Willesden West | Les Burt | 1,324 | 3.0 | 3 |
By-elections, 1959–64
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1962 West Lothian by-election | Gordon McLennan | 1,511 | 3.6 | 5 |
| 1963 Swansea East by-election | Bert Pearce | 773 | 2.5 | 6 |
| 1963 Leeds South by-election | Bert Ramelson | 670 | 2.2 | 4 |
| 1963 Luton by-election | Tony Chater | 490 | 1.1 | 4 |
| 1963 Dundee West by-election | Dave Bowman | 1,170 | 2.6 | 4 |
| 1963 Manchester Openshaw by-election | Eddie Marsden | 1,185 | 4.9 | 3 |
1964 general election
1966 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberavon | Julian Tudor Hart | 1,620 | 3.6 | 3 |
| Aberdare | Alistair Wilson | 2,305 | 6.4 | 4 |
| Aberdeen North | Margaret Rose | 719 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Battersea North | Gladys Easton | 650 | 3.0 | 3 |
| Birkenhead | Barry Williams | 604 | 1.5 | 3 |
| Birmingham Northfield | Derek Robinson | 1,029 | 1.6 | 3 |
| Birmingham Small Heath | George Jelf | 477 | 1.8 | 3 |
| Birmingham Stechford | Bill Dunn | 998 | 2.6 | 3 |
| Bothwell | Thomas Woods | 1,209 | 2.7 | 3 |
| Bristol North West | Brian Underwood | 595 | 1.2 | 3 |
| Coventry East | Harry Bourne | 1,368 | 2.3 | 4 |
| Dagenham | George Wake | 1,373 | 2.9 | 3 |
| Dundee West | Dave Bowman | 1,217 | 2.5 | 4 |
| East Dunbartonshire | Jimmy Reid | 1,548 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Eccles | Michael Bennett | 1,239 | 3.0 | 3 |
| Edinburgh Leith | Honor Arundel | 279 | 1.0 | 3 |
| Erith and Crayford | Laurie Smith | 556 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Fulham | Peter Robson | 256 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Glasgow Gorbals | Margaret Hunter | 819 | 4.1 | 3 |
| Glasgow Govan | Gordon McLennan | 1,378 | 4.4 | 3 |
| Glasgow Provan | John Jackson | 988 | 2.3 | 3 |
| Glasgow Scotstoun | Hugh Boyd | 2,395 | 5.4 | 3 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Neil McLellan | 867 | 3.7 | 4 |
| Goole | William Carr | 952 | 2.3 | 3 |
| Greenock | William Dunn | 702 | 2.1 | 4 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Monty Goldman | 1,491 | 4.2 | 3 |
| Hayes and Harlington | Frank Stanley | 698 | 2.1 | 3 |
| Hornsey | Max Morris | 1,184 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Islington South West | John Moss | 756 | 3.0 | 5 |
| Leeds South | Bert Ramelson | 714 | 2.1 | 3 |
| Liverpool Scotland | Tom Cassin | 779 | 3.9 | 3 |
| Llanelli | Bob Hitchon | 1,211 | 2.6 | 4 |
| Luton | Tony Chater | 586 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Manchester Openshaw | Eddie Marsden | 1,479 | 4.3 | 3 |
| Mansfield | Fred Westacott | 590 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Mitcham | Sid French | 580 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Motherwell | James Sneddon | 1,508 | 4.1 | 3 |
| Neath | Jim David | 1,632 | 4.2 | 3 |
| Newcastle-upon-Tyne Central | Tom Welch | 404 | 1.6 | 3 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 1,070 | 2.1 | 3 |
| Pontypool | Eddie Jones | 897 | 2.5 | 3 |
| Rhondda East | Annie Powell | 2,349 | 8.4 | 2 |
| Rhondda West | Arthur True | 1,853 | 7.4 | 4 |
| St Pancras North | Jock Nicolson | 1,253 | 3.8 | 3 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Howard Hill | 989 | 2.8 | 3 |
| Sheffield Park | Cyril Morton | 1,022 | 3.3 | 3 |
| Southwark | Joe Bent | 1,404 | 4.7 | 3 |
| Stepney | Solly Kaye | 2,209 | 7.3 | 3 |
| Stirling and Falkirk | P. McIntosh | 767 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Stockton-on-Tees | Ernest Jones | 710 | 1.8 | 3 |
| Stoke-on-Trent South | Sam Lomas | 2,262 | 5.1 | 3 |
| Swansea East | Bill Jones | 902 | 2.2 | 4 |
| Swindon | Ike Gradwell | 838 | 2.0 | 3 |
| West Fife | Archie Macmillan | 1,542 | 3.6 | 4 |
| West Lothian | Irene Swan | 567 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Wigan | Mick Weaver | 858 | 2.2 | 3 |
| Willesden West | Les Burt | 1,140 | 3.1 | 3 |
By-elections, 1966–70
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1967 Glasgow Pollok by-election | Alexander Murray | 694 | 1.8 | 5 |
| 1967 Rhondda West by-election | Arthur True | 1,723 | 6.8 | 3 |
| 1967 Manchester Gorton by-election | Victor Eddisford | 437 | 1.0 | 5 |
| 1968 Sheffield Brightside by-election | Robert Wilkinson | 1,069 | 4.2 | 3 |
| 1969 Glasgow Gorbals by-election | John Kay | 361 | 2.5 | 4 |
| 1969 Swindon by-election | Judith Gradwell | 1,723 | 1.3 | 4 |
1970 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberavon | Julian Tudor Hart | 1,102 | 2.4 | 4 |
| Aberdare | Alistair Wilson | 1,317 | 3.5 | 4 |
| Aberdeen North | Margaret Rose | 521 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Acton | Maurice Costin | 258 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Battersea North | D. Welsh | 179 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Birkenhead | Barry Williams | 351 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Birmingham Northfield | Derek Robinson | 605 | 0.9 | 3 |
| Birmingham Stechford | Sidney Pegg | 298 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Bristol North West | W. E. Williams | 227 | 0.5 | 4 |
| Coventry East | John Hosey | 841 | 1.4 | 3 |
| Dagenham | George Wake | 982 | 2.2 | 3 |
| Dundee West | Harry McLevy | 809 | 1.6 | 4 |
| Dunfermline | John Neilson | 462 | 1.2 | 4 |
| East Dunbartonshire | Jimmy Reid | 1,656 | 2.3 | 5 |
| Eccles | Terry Keenan | 643 | 1.5 | 3 |
| Edinburgh Leith | Irene Swan | 413 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Glasgow Gorbals | John Kay | 376 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Glasgow Govan | Thomas Biggam | 326 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Glasgow Provan | John Jackson | 601 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Glasgow Scotstoun | Hugh Boyd | 846 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Neil McLellan | 423 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Greenock | William Dunn | 559 | 1.6 | 3 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Monty Goldman | 793 | 2.4 | 3 |
| Hayes and Harlington | Peter Pink | 372 | 1.1 | 3 |
| Hornsey | Max Morris | 624 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Huddersfield East | Ethel Beresford | 308 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Huyton | Joe Kenny | 890 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Islington South West | Marie Betteridge | 509 | 2.4 | 4 |
| Lanark | David McDowall | 1,273 | 1.9 | 4 |
| Leeds East | Joan Bellamy | 513 | 1.0 | 3 |
| Leeds South East | Bernard Scott | 198 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Liverpool Exchange | Roger O'Hara | 775 | 4.2 | 3 |
| Llanelli | Bob Hitchon | 603 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Luton | Tony Chater | 447 | 1.0 | 3 |
| Manchester Openshaw | Bernard Panter | 552 | 1.7 | 3 |
| Mansfield | Fred Westacott | 628 | 1.4 | 3 |
| Mitcham | Sid French | 638 | 1.3 | 3 |
| Motherwell | James Sneddon | 1,829 | 4.7 | 4 |
| Neath | Bert Pearce | 579 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 741 | 1.5 | 4 |
| Pontypool | B. Watkinson | 435 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Rhondda East | Arthur Jones | 659 | 2.3 | 4 |
| Rhondda West | Arthur True | 1,201 | 4.8 | 3 |
| St Pancras North | Gordon McLennan | 670 | 2.4 | 3 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Gordon Ashberry | 665 | 2.0 | 3 |
| Sheffield Park | Cyril Morton | 637 | 2.1 | 3 |
| Southwark | E. Hume | 1,128 | 4.5 | 3 |
| Stepney | Solly Kaye | 1,468 | 5.8 | 3 |
| Stockton-on-Tees | Ernest Jones | 369 | 0.9 | 3 |
| Stoke-on-Trent South | Sam Lomas | 364 | 1.1 | 3 |
| Swansea East | Bill Jones | 563 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Swindon | Ike Gradwell | 456 | 1.0 | 3 |
| Walsall North | Don Brayford | 597 | 1.2 | 3 |
| West Fife | Marie Betteridge | 855 | 1.7 | 4 |
| West Lothian | Chris Bett | 459 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Wigan | Jack Kay | 672 | 1.6 | 3 |
| Willesden West | Les Burt | 515 | 1.6 | 3 |
| Wolverhampton South West | Pete Carter | 189 | 0.5 | 4 |
By-elections, 1970–74
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1972 Merthyr Tydfil by-election | Arthur Lewis Jones | 1,519 | 4.7 | 4 |
February 1974 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberdare | Alistair Wilson | 1,038 | 2.6 | 4 |
| Birmingham Northfield | Derek Robinson | 368 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Bootle | Ronald Morris | 586 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Bothwell | David Bolton | 562 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Brent South | Les Burt | 380 | 0.9 | 5 |
| Central Dunbartonshire | Jimmy Reid | 5,928 | 14.6 | 3 |
| Central Fife | Alex Maxwell | 2,019 | 4.4 | 4 |
| Clackmannan and Eastern Stirlingshire | George Bolton | 322 | 0.6 | 4 |
| Coventry North East | John Hosey | 838 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Dagenham | George Wake | 1,169 | 2.4 | 3 |
| Dundee West | Harry McLevy | 673 | 1.3 | 4 |
| East Kilbride | David McDowell | 693 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Eccles | Terry Keenan | 404 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Edinburgh East | Irene Swan | 274 | 0.6 | 5 |
| Glasgow Garscadden | Sammy Barr | 635 | 1.6 | 4 |
| Glasgow Pollok | Thomas Biggam | 377 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Glasgow Provan | John Jackson | 749 | 2.0 | 4 |
| Glasgow Queen's Park | John Kay | 372 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Neil McLellan | 478 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Greenock and Port Glasgow | Alexander Murray | 483 | 1.1 | 5 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Monty Goldman | 532 | 1.6 | 5 |
| Huddersfield East | Tony Drake | 246 | 0.6 | 5 |
| Islington South and Finsbury | Marie Betteridge | 492 | 1.8 | 4 |
| Leeds South East | Bill Innes | 405 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Liverpool Scotland Exchange | Roger O'Hara | 505 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Llanelli | Bob Hitchon | 507 | 1.0 | 5 |
| Manchester Openshaw | Philip Widdall | 312 | 1.0 | 5 |
| Mansfield | Fred Westacott | 675 | 1.3 | 3 |
| Merthyr Tydfil | Arthur Lewis Jones | 369 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Mitcham and Morden | Sid French | 507 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Motherwell and Wishaw | James Sneddon | 1,066 | 2.7 | 4 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 754 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Pontypool | Graham Williams | 498 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Rhondda | Arthur True | 1,374 | 2.6 | 5 |
| St Pancras North | Gordon McLennan | 466 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Sheffield Brightside | Vi Gill | 513 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Sheffield Park | Cyril Morton | 521 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Stepney and Poplar | Kevin Halpin | 1,278 | 3.6 | 3 |
| Stockton-on-Tees | Ernest Jones | 791 | 1.2 | 3 |
| Stoke-on-Trent South | Sam Lomas | 489 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Swansea East | Bill Jones | 507 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Tooting | Lou Lewis | 337 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Walsall North | Joe Richards | 819 | 1.6 | 3 |
| West Lothian | Chris Bett | 438 | 0.7 | 4 |
October 1974 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberdare | Alistair Wilson | 1,028 | 2.7 | 5 |
| Birmingham Northfield | Derek Robinson | 180 | 0.3 | 5 |
| Bootle | Ronald Morris | 516 | 1.2 | 4 |
| Central Dunbartonshire | Jimmy Reid | 3,417 | 8.7 | 4 |
| Central Fife | Alex Maxwell | 1,040 | 2.4 | 4 |
| Coventry North East | John Hosey | 309 | 0.7 | 5 |
| Dagenham | George Wake | 569 | 1.3 | 4 |
| Dundee West | Harry McLevy | 381 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Eccles | Terry Keenan | 348 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Edinburgh East | Irene Swan | 213 | 0.5 | 5 |
| Glasgow Provan | John Jackson | 503 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Glasgow Queen's Park | John Kay | 354 | 1.4 | 5 |
| Glasgow Springburn | Neil McLellan | 352 | 1.1 | 5 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Monty Goldman | 418 | 1.5 | 5 |
| Islington South and Finsbury | Marie Betteridge | 512 | 2.2 | 4 |
| Leeds South East | Bill Innes | 317 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Liverpool Scotland Exchange | Roger O'Hara | 556 | 2.9 | 4 |
| Manchester Openshaw | Philip Widdall | 300 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Mansfield | Fred Westacott | 448 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Merthyr Tydfil | Tom Roberts | 509 | 1.7 | 5 |
| Mitcham and Morden | Sid French | 281 | 0.6 | 4 |
| Motherwell and Wishaw | James Sneddon | 946 | 2.4 | 5 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 525 | 1.0 | 5 |
| Rhondda | Arthur True | 1,404 | 2.8 | 5 |
| Sheffield Park | Cyril Morton | 403 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Stepney and Poplar | Kevin Halpin | 617 | 2.0 | 4 |
| Tooting | Lou Lewis | 268 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Walsall North | Joe Richards | 465 | 1.0 | 4 |
| West Lothian | Chris Bett | 247 | 0.4 | 5 |
By-elections, 1974–79
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1978 Glasgow Garscadden by-election | Sammy Barr | 407 | 1.1 | 5 |
1979 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aberavon | Gerald Rowden | 406 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Aberdare | Mary Winter | 518 | 1.4 | 4 |
| Birmingham Sparkbrook | Roger Murray | 715 | 2.4 | 3 |
| Cardiff Central | Richard Spencer | 112 | 0.3 | 6 |
| Central Dunbartonshire | Daniel McCafferty | 1,017 | 2.6 | 5 |
| Central Fife | Alex Maxwell | 1,172 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Coventry North East | Paul Corrigan | 390 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Dagenham | Dan Connor | 553 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Dundee West | Raymond Mennie | 316 | 0.6 | 4 |
| East Kilbride | David McDowell | 658 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Eccles | Terry Keenan | 368 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Edinburgh East | Carol Downes | 173 | 0.4 | 4 |
| Flint East | Glyn Davies | 307 | 0.5 | 5 |
| Glasgow Garscadden | Sammy Barr | 374 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Glasgow Maryhill | Peter Smith | 287 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Glasgow Provan | John Jackson | 377 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Glasgow Queen's Park | John Kay | 263 | 1.1 | 4 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Monty Goldman | 440 | 1.5 | 5 |
| Hayes and Harlington | John Mansfield | 249 | 0.6 | 5 |
| Islington South and Finsbury | Marie Betteridge | 330 | 1.4 | 5 |
| Leeds South East | James Rodgers | 190 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Liverpool Scotland Exchange | Roger O'Hara | 421 | 2.3 | 4 |
| Llanelli | Bob Hitchon | 617 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Luton East | Tom Mitchell | 107 | 0.3 | 5 |
| Manchester Openshaw | Philip Widdall | 174 | 0.6 | 4 |
| Merthyr Tydfil | Chris Dennett | 223 | 0.7 | 5 |
| Motherwell and Wishaw | James Sneddon | 740 | 1.9 | 4 |
| Norwich North | Andy Panes | 106 | 0.3 | 6 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 1,071 | 2.0 | 4 |
| Paisley | June Tait | 145 | 0.3 | 5 |
| Rhondda | Arthur True | 1,819 | 3.6 | 4 |
| Sheffield Park | Gordon Ashberry | 279 | 0.7 | 5 |
| Stepney and Poplar | Kevin Halpin | 413 | 1.3 | 6 |
| Stockton-on-Tees | Jim Smith | 243 | 0.4 | 6 |
| Swansea East | Bill Jones | 308 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Tooting | Lou Lewis | 233 | 0.7 | 5 |
| West Lothian | Bill Sneddon | 404 | 0.6 | 4 |
By-elections, 1979–83
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1982 Birmingham Northfield by-election | Peter Sheppard | 349 | 0.8 | 5 |
| 1982 Glasgow Queen's Park by-election | John Kay | 339 | 2.1 | 4 |
| 1983 Bermondsey by-election | Robert Gordon | 50 | 0.2 | 10 |
1983 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bethnal Green and Stepney | J. Rees | 243 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Birmingham Edgbaston | P. A. Davies | 169 | 0.5 | 6 |
| Birmingham Northfield | Peter Sheppard | 420 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Bristol South | A. Chester | 224 | 0.5 | 5 |
| City of London and Westminster South | A. Spence | 161 | 0.5 | 6 |
| Clydebank and Milngavie | Jim Bollan | 308 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Coventry North East | John Meacham | 193 | 0.4 | 5 |
| Dagenham | D. Walshe | 141 | 0.4 | 5 |
| Dunfermline East | Alex Maxwell | 864 | 2.4 | 5 |
| Ealing Acton | S. Pulley | 192 | 0.4 | 4 |
| East Kilbride | W. Doolan | 256 | 0.5 | 5 |
| Eccles | B. Cottam | 485 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Edinburgh Central | D. Carson | 119 | 0.3 | 5 |
| Falkirk East | Fiona McGregor | 334 | 0.9 | 5 |
| Glasgow Central | J. P. McGoldrick | 347 | 1.1 | 5 |
| Glasgow Garscadden | Sammy Barr | 218 | 0.6 | 5 |
| Glasgow Maryhill | P. Smith | 274 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Glasgow Provan | I. Jackson | 294 | 1.0 | 5 |
| Greenwich | F. Hooks | 149 | 0.4 | 6 |
| Hackney North and Stoke Newington | Monty Goldman | 426 | 1.2 | 5 |
| Hackney South and Shoreditch | Dave Green | 246 | 0.6 | 8 |
| Leeds Central | J. M. Rogers | 314 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Lewisham East | Geoff Roberts | 135 | 0.3 | 6 |
| Linlithgow | M. Parnell | 199 | 0.5 | 5 |
| Liverpool Riverside | John C. Blevin | 261 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Llanelli | Bob Hitchon | 371 | 0.8 | 5 |
| Manchester Gorton | Malcolm Cowle | 333 | 0.8 | 4 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 1,184 | 2.5 | 4 |
| Rhondda | Arthur True | 1,350 | 2.8 | 5 |
| Sheffield Central | Vi Gill | 296 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Swansea East | Bill Jones | 294 | 0.7 | 5 |
| Thurrock | J. Paul | 199 | 0.4 | 6 |
| Tooting | R. E. Lewis | 181 | 0.4 | 6 |
| Vauxhall | Dave Cook | 199 | 0.5 | 6 |
| Warley East | H. S. Randhawa | 217 | 0.6 | 4 |
By-elections, 1983–87
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1984 Cynon Valley by-election | Mary Winter | 642 | 1.9 | 5 |
1987 general election
| Constituency | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bethnal Green and Stepney | Sarah Louise Gasquoine | 232 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Birmingham Small Heath | Peter Raymond Sheppard | 154 | 0.5 | 5 |
| Bristol West | Veronica Ralph | 134 | 0.3 | 5 |
| Coventry North East | Tom McNally | 310 | 0.7 | 4 |
| Dundee West | Steve Matthewson | 308 | 0.7 | 5 |
| Glasgow Central | John Patrick McGoldrick | 265 | 0.8 | 6 |
| Glasgow Govan | Douglas Chalmers | 237 | 0.6 | 5 |
| Greenwich | Patricia Clinton | 58 | 0.2 | 6 |
| Hackney South and Shoreditch | Dave Green | 403 | 1.0 | 4 |
| Leeds Central | Bill Innes | 355 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Linlithgow | John Glassford | 154 | 0.3 | 5 |
| Liverpool Riverside | Katherine Anne Gardner | 601 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Motherwell South | Robert Somerville | 223 | 0.6 | 5 |
| Newcastle-upon-Tyne East | Joseph Keith | 362 | 0.9 | 4 |
| Nottingham North | John Peck | 879 | 1.7 | 4 |
| Rhondda | Arthur True | 869 | 1.8 | 5 |
| Sheffield Central | Keith Edward Petts | 203 | 0.5 | 5 |
| Southwark and Bermondsey | Peter Nigel Power | 108 | 0.3 | 4 |
| Vauxhall | Dave Cook | 223 | 0.5 | 5 |
By-elections, 1987–90
| By-election | Candidate | Votes | % | Position |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1988 Glasgow Govan by-election | Douglas Chalmers | 281 | 0.9 | 6 |
| 1989 Pontypridd by-election | Dave Richards | 239 | 0.6 | 6 |
References
- Craig, F. W. S. (1968). British Parliamentary Election Statistics 1918-1968. Glasgow: Political Reference Publications. p. 46. ISBN 0900178000.
- Craig, F. W. S. (1968). British Parliamentary Election Statistics 1918-1968. Glasgow: Political Reference Publications. pp. 1–18. ISBN 0900178000.
- Klugmann, James (1968). History of the Communist Party of Great Britain. London: Lawrence and Wishart. pp. 182–183.
- Klugmann, James (1968). History of the Communist Party of Great Britain. London: Lawrence and Wishart. pp. 234–235.
- Craig, F. W. S. (1968). British Parliamentary Election Statistics 1918-1968. Glasgow: Political Reference Publications. p. 56. ISBN 0900178000.
- Klugmann, James (1968). History of the Communist Party of Great Britain. London: Lawrence and Wishart. pp. 360–362.
- Klugmann, James (1968). History of the Communist Party of Great Britain. London: Lawrence and Wishart. pp. 367–368.
- F. W. S. Craig, Chronology of British Parliamentary By-elections 1833–1987
- Craig, F. W. S. (1975). Minor Parties in British By-elections, 1885–1974. London: Macmillan Press. pp. 18–31.
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