List of sieges of Constantinople

The following is a list of sieges of Constantinople, a historic city located in an area which is today part of Istanbul, Turkey. The city was built on the land that links Europe to Asia through Bosporus and connects the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. As a transcontinental city within the Silk Road, Constantinople had a strategic value for many empires and kingdoms who tried to conqueror it throughout history.

For the final siege of Constantinople, see Fall of Constantinople.
Topographical map of Constantinople during the Byzantine period, corresponding to the modern-day Fatih district of Istanbul. The city was known as Byzantium under Roman Empire.

Originally known as Byzantium in classical antiquity, the first recorded siege of the city occurred in 510 BC by Achaemenid Empire under the command of Otanes. Following this successful siege, the city fell under the rule of Persians until it won its independence again and became part of the Roman Empire around 70 BC. Despite being part of the Roman Empire, it was a free city until it became under siege by Septimius Severus between 193–196 and was partially sacked during the civil war. After it was captured by Constantine the Great in 324, it became the capital of the Byzantine Empire under the name of New Rome. It later became known as Constantinople and in the years that followed it became under attack by both the Byzantine pretenders fighting for the throne and also by the foreign powers for a total twenty-two times. The city remained under Byzantine rule until the Ottoman Empire took over as a result of the siege in 1453, known as Fall of Constantinople, after which no other sieges took place.

Constantinople was besieged thirty-four times throughout its history. Out of the ten sieges that occurred during its time as a city-state and while it was under Roman rule, six were successful, three were repelled and one was lifted as a result of the agreement between the parties. Three of these sieges were carried out by the Romans who claimed the throne during civil war. Of the twenty-four sieges that took place while it was under Byzantine rule, five were successful, fourteen remained inconclusive, and five were lifted by reaching mutual agreements. Four of these sieges took place during civil wars. The Sack of Constantinople that that took place in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade caused the city to fall and established the Latin Empire. It also sent the Byzantine imperial dynasty to exile, who founded the Empire of Nicaea. Constantinople came under Byzantine rule again in 1261, but was conquered by the Ottomans with the siege in 1453, as a result of which the Byzantine Empire came to an end. The city has been under the rule of Turks since the last siege, except for the period of Allied occupation from 1920 to 1923.

Sieges
Date Attackers Defenders Forces used Result[A] Reference(s)
510 BC Achaemenid Empire Byzantium Naval and land Successful [1][2][3][4]
478 BC Delian League Achaemenid Empire Naval Successful [5][6][7][8][9]
408 BC Athens Byzantium, Megara, Boeotia Naval and land Successful [10][11][12][13][14]
340–339 BC Macedonia Byzantium, Athens Naval and land Unsuccessful [15][16][17][18][19]
278–277 BC Galatians Byzantium Land Lifted [20][21][22][23]
251 BC Seleucid Empire Byzantium, Heraclea Pontica,
Ptolemaic Kingdom		 Naval and land Unsuccessful [24][25][26]
73–72 BC Pontus Byzantium Naval and land Unsuccessful [B][27][28][29][30][31]
193–196 Septimius Severus Pescennius Niger Naval and land Successful [32][33][34][35][36]
313 Maximinus II Licinius Land Successful [37][38][39][40][41]
324 Constantine the Great Licinius Naval and land Successful [42][43][44][45]
378 Goths Byzantine Empire Land Unsuccessful [46][47][48]
626 Pannonian Avars, Sasanian Empire Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [49][50][51]
654 Umayyads Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [52][53]
669 Umayyads Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [54][55][56][57]
674–678 Umayyads Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [58][59][60][61]
715 Opsician Theme Anastasios II Naval and land Successful [62][63][64]
717–718 Umayyads Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [65][66][67]
813 First Bulgarian Empire Byzantine Empire Land Unsuccessful [68][69][70][71]
821–822 Thomas the Slav Michael II Naval and land Unsuccessful [72][73][74]
860 Rus' Khaganate Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [C][75][76][77]
907 Kievan Rus' Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [78][79][80]
913 First Bulgarian Empire Byzantine Empire Land Unsuccessful [81]
921 First Bulgarian Empire Byzantine Empire Land Unsuccessful [82]
923 First Bulgarian Empire Byzantine Empire Land Unsuccessful [83]
941 Kievan Rus' Byzantine Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [84][85][86]
1047 Leo Tornikios Constantine IX Monomachos Land Unsuccessful [87][88][89]
1203 Crusaders Byzantine Empire Naval and land Successful [90][91][92][93]
1204 Crusaders Byzantine Empire Naval and land Successful [94][95][96][97]
1235–1236 Empire of Nicaea, Second Bulgarian Empire Latin Empire, Duchy of the Archipelago Naval and land Unsuccessful [98][99][100]
1260 Empire of Nicaea Latin Empire Naval and land Unsuccessful [101][99][102][103]
1376 Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Ottoman Empire, Genoa John V Palaiologos Land Successful [104][105][106]
1391 Ottoman Empire Byzantine Empire Naval and land Lifted [107][108][109][110]
1394–1402 Ottoman Empire Byzantine Empire Naval and land Lifted [111][112][113][114]
1411 Musa Çelebi Byzantine Empire Land Lifted [115][116][117][118]
1422 Ottoman Empire Byzantine Empire Land Lifted [119][120][121][122]
1453 Ottoman Empire Byzantine Empire Naval and land Successful [123][124][125][126]

Notes
^A The "Result" column is relative to the side that carries out the siege.
^B While some sources have used Cicero and Tacitus's writings as a reference to argue that the city was in fact under a siege until it "repelled the enemies", other ancient writings found mention that a siege was planned through the sea but didn't take place due to stormy weather conditions.[127][31]
^C Byzantine sources give 860 and Russian sources give 866 as the year in which this siege occurred, although it is accepted that the latter is wrong.
^D The year in which the siege started is controversial. Fahameddin Başar, Halil İnalcık and Konstantin Josef Jireček gave it as 1394, while Feridun Emecen and Haldun Eroğlu believed that it was 1396. In addition, some sources mention that the siege started in 1391 and ended in 1396, and that between these years, there was only one siege, the severity of which increased and decreased from time to time.[107][112]

References
Inline citations
  1. Herodotos (2012). Tarih. Müntekim Ökmen, çev. (8 ed.). İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. p. 392. ISBN 9789754587210.
  2. Vasilev, Miroslav Ivanov (2015). The Policy of Darius and Xerxes towards Thrace and Macedonia. Lahey: Brill. p. 86. doi:10.1163/9789004282155. ISBN 9789004282148.
  3. Kuban, Doğan (1993). "Bizantion". Dünden Bugüne İstanbul Ansiklopedisi. 2. İstanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yayınları. pp. 258–260.
  4. Yavuz 2014, p. 169.
  5. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 1.
  6. Arslan 2010, p. 78.
  7. Harris, Jonathan (2017). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (2 ed.). Londra: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 26. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2009.00246_52.x. ISBN 9781474254656. S2CID 144417364.
  8. Hughes 2017, p. 538.
  9. Yavuz 2014, p. 191.
  10. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 39.
  11. Arslan, Murat (2011), "Alkibiades'in Khalkhedon ve Byzantion Kuşatması: Nedenleri ve Sonuçları", in Şahin, Hamdi; Konyar, Erkan; Engin, Gürkan (eds.), Özsait Armağanı: Mehmet ve Nesrin Özsait Onuruna Sunulan Makaleler, Antalya: Suna-İnan Kıraç Akdeniz Medeniyetleri Araştırma Enstitüsü, pp. 9–22, ISBN 9786054018093
  12. Grote, George (2001). A History of Greece: From the Time of Solon to 403 B.C. Londra: Routledge. p. 884. ISBN 0415223695.
  13. Hughes 2017, p. 119.
  14. Yavuz 2014, p. 221.
  15. Arslan 2010, p. 197.
  16. Sevin, Veli (2016). Anadolu'nun Tarihi Coğrafyası I (4 ed.). Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. p. 24. ISBN 9789751609847.
  17. Hughes 2017.
  18. Tekin, Oğuz (2001). Byzas'tan I. Constantinus'a Kadar Eskiçağ'da İstanbul (2 ed.). İstanbul: Eskiçağ Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yayınları. p. 33. ISBN 9789757938040.
  19. Yavuz 2014, p. 275.
  20. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 81.
  21. Arslan 2010, p. 233.
  22. Arslan 2007, p. 56.
  23. Arslan, Murat (January–February 2014). "Galatların Byzantion Kuşatması". Aktüel Arkeoloji. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları (37): 68–75. ISSN 1307-5756.
  24. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 92.
  25. Arslan 2010, p. 243.
  26. Yavuz 2014, p. 310.
  27. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 129.
  28. Arslan 2010, p. 343.
  29. Arslan 2007, p. 334.
  30. Grillo, Luca (2015). Cicero's De Provinciis Consularibus Oratio. Londra: Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 9780190224592.
  31. Yavuz 2014, p. 344.
  32. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 133.
  33. Arslan 2010, p. 430.
  34. Hughes 2017, p. 166.
  35. Freely 2011, p. 109.
  36. Yavuz 2014, p. 365.
  37. Sextus Aurelius Victor (1994). Aurelius Victor: De Caesaribus. H. W. Bird, çev. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 188. doi:10.3828/978-0-85323-218-6. ISBN 9780853232186.
  38. Gibbon, Edward (1988). Roma İmparatorluğu'nun Gerileyiş ve Çöküş Tarihi. I. Asım Baltacıgil, çev. İstanbul: Bilim, Felsefe, Sanat Yayınları. p. 444.
  39. Freely 2011, p. 318.
  40. "İstanbul". Meydan Larousse. 10. İstanbul: Sabah. 1992. p. 77.
  41. Yavuz 2014, p. 387.
  42. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 153.
  43. Norwich 2013a, p. 45.
  44. Hughes 2017, p. 231.
  45. Yavuz 2014, p. 393.
  46. Alexander Van Millingen (31 October 2010). Byzantine Constantinople: The Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites. Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–. ISBN 978-1-108-01456-4. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
  47. Stephen Turnbull (21 August 2012). The Walls of Constantinople AD 324-1453. Osprey Publishing. pp. 5–. ISBN 978-1-78200-224-6. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
  48. Jane Penrose (2005). Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. Osprey Publishing. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-1-84176-932-5. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
  49. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 95.
  50. Norwich 2013a, p. 240.
  51. Reazaei, Iman S. (September 2016). "V.-VII. Yüzyıllarda Bizans-Sâsânî İlişkileri". İraniyat Dergisi. Ankara: İranoloji Derneği Yayınları (1): 18–31.
  52. O'Sullivan, Shaun (2004-01-01). "Sebeos' account of an Arab attack on Constantinople in 654". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 28 (1): 67–88. doi:10.1179/byz.2004.28.1.67. ISSN 0307-0131.
  53. Hoyland, Robert G. (2014-01-01). In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 107. ISBN 9780199916368.
  54. Jankowiak, Marek (2013), "The first Arab siege of Constantinople", in Zuckerman, Constantin (ed.), Travaux et Mémoires Tome XVII - Constructing the Seventh Century, Paris: Association des Amis du Centre d’Histoire et Civilisation de Byzance, pp. 237–320, ISBN 9782916716459
  55. Apak, Adem (July 2009). "Emevîler Döneminde Anadolu'da Arap-Bizans Mücadelesi". Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi. Bursa: Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi. 18 (2): 104. ISSN 1301-3394.
  56. Unan, Fahri (14 September 2009). "Müslümanlar ve İstanbul". hacettepe.edu.tr. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
  57. Uçar, Şahin (1990). Anadolu'da İslâm-Bizans Mücadelesi. İstanbul: İşaret Yayınları. p. 82.
  58. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 249.
  59. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 115.
  60. Norwich 2013a, p. 263.
  61. Hitti, Philip K. (1989). Siyâsî ve Kültürel İslam Tarihi. II. Salih Tuğ, çev. İstanbul: Boğaziçi Yayınları. p. 320.
  62. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 144.
  63. Hughes 2017, p. 1283.
  64. Sumner, Graham V. (1976). "Philippicus, Anastasius II and Theodosius III". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Department of Classical Studies. 17 (3): 287–294. ISSN 2159-3159. OCLC 6415521.
  65. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 253.
  66. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 145.
  67. Norwich 2013a, p. 286.
  68. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 265.
  69. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 188.
  70. Vasiliev 2016, p. 326.
  71. Norwich 2013b, p. 28.
  72. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 192.
  73. Vasiliev 2016, p. 319.
  74. Norwich 2013b, p. 40.
  75. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 282.
  76. Vasiliev 2016, p. 322.
  77. Norwich 2013b, p. 66.
  78. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 287.
  79. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 241.
  80. Vasiliev 2016, p. 369.
  81. Рашев, 2007 & 19.
  82. Runciman, 1930 & 164 – 165.
  83. Theophanes Continatus 2012.
  84. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 289.
  85. Vasiliev 2016, p. 371.
  86. Norwich 2013b, p. 129.
  87. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 308.
  88. Norwich 2013b, p. 248.
  89. Hughes 2017, p. 1289.
  90. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 341.
  91. Vasiliev 2016, p. 518.
  92. Freely 2011, p. 159.
  93. Demirkent, Işın (1997). Haçlı Seferleri. İstanbul: Dünya Yayıncılık. p. 172. ISBN 9757632546.
  94. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 386.
  95. Vasiliev 2016, p. 520.
  96. Robert de Clari (1994). İstanbul'un Zaptı (1204). Beynun Akyavaş, çev. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. p. VI.
  97. Ayönü, Yusuf (July 2015). "IV. Haçlı Seferi'nin Ardından Batı Anadolu'da Mücadele Eden İki Rakip: İstanbul Latin Krallığı ve İznik İmparatorluğu". Cihannüma: Tarih ve Coğrafya Araştırmaları Dergisi. İzmir: İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Fakültesi. 1 (1): 13. doi:10.30517/cihannuma.283488. ISSN 2149-0678.
  98. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 349.
  99. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 405.
  100. Vasiliev 2016, p. 592.
  101. Georgios Akrapolites (2008). Vekayinâme. Bilge Umar, çev. İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları. p. 162. ISBN 9786053960935.
  102. Hughes 2017, p. 1296.
  103. Freely 2011, p. 168.
  104. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 499.
  105. Hughes 2017, p. 1298.
  106. Baştav 1989, p. 74.
  107. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 387.
  108. Eroğlu, Haldun (2004). "Osmanlıların 1453 Öncesi İstanbul Kuşatmaları". Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi. 22 (35): 89–101. doi:10.1501/Tarar_0000000188. ISSN 1015-1826.
  109. Demirkent, Işın (2001). "İstanbul". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 23. İstanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları. pp. 205–212.
  110. Baştav 1989, p. 83.
  111. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 390.
  112. Yinanç, Mükrimin Halil (1979). "Bayezid I". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 2. İstanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. pp. 369–392.
  113. Taeschner, Franz (1990). Necmi Ülker, çev. "1453 Yılına Kadar Osmanlı Türkleri". Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi. İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü. 5 (1): 296. ISSN 0257-4152.
  114. Baştav 1989, p. 91.
  115. Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 393.
  116. Cezar, Mustafa (2010). Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi. I. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. p. 233. ISBN 9789751623225.
  117. Başar, Fahameddin (2006). "Mûsâ Çelebi". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 31. İstanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları. pp. 216–217. ISBN 9753894279.
  118. Tekirdağ, Şehabeddin (1979). "Mûsâ Çelebî". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 8. İstanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. pp. 661–666.
  119. Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 515.
  120. İnalcık 2014, p. 105.
  121. İnalcık, Halil (1979). "Murad II". İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 8. İstanbul: Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. p. 600.
  122. Vasiliev 2016, p. 714.
  123. Yeorgios Francis (1992). Şehir Düştü. Kriton Dinçmen, çev. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. p. 98. ISBN 9754702837.
  124. Barbaro, Nicolò (2007). Konstantiniye'den İstanbul'a. Muharrem Tan, çev. İstanbul: Moralite Yayınları. p. 183. ISBN 9789756397961.
  125. Âşık Paşazâde (2003). Osmanoğulları'nın Tarihi. Kemal Yavuz; M. A. Yekta Saraç, çev. İstanbul: Koç Kültür Sanat Tanıtım. p. 222. ISBN 975296043X.
  126. Ak, Mahmut; Başar, Fahameddin (2010). İstanbul'un Fetih Günlüğü (2 ed.). İstanbul: Çamlıca Basım Yayın. p. 47. ISBN 9789944905961.
  127. Arslan, Murat (2007). Mithradates VI Eupator: Roma'nın Büyük Düşmanı. İstanbul: Odin Yayıncılık. p. 334. ISBN 9789120219790.
Sources
  • Arslan, Murat (2010), İstanbul'un Antikçağ Tarihi: Klasik ve Hellenistik Dönemler, İstanbul: Odin Yayıncılık, ISBN 978-9759078010
  • Arslan, Murat; Kaçar, Turhan (2017), Byzantion'dan Constantinopolis'e İstanbul Kuşatmaları, İstanbul: İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, ISBN 9786054642670
  • Baştav, Şerif (1989), Bizans İmparatorluğu Tarihi: Son Devir (1261-1461), Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları, ISBN 97545609k(a9aa242 Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  • Freely, John (2011), Troya Savaşı'ndan İstiklal Harbi'ne Anadolu'da Yunanlar, Gül Çağalı Güven, çev., İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, ISBN 9786050904345aa
  • Hughes, Bettany (2017), Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities, Londra: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 9780297868491
  • İnalcık, Halil (2014), Devlet-i 'Aliyye (54 ed.), İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, ISBN 9789944886451
  • Norwich, John Julius (2013a), Bizans: Erken Dönem (MS 323-802), 1, Hamide Koyukan, çev., İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi, ISBN 9786055093013
  • Norwich, John Julius (2013b), Bizans: Yükseliş Dönemi (MS 803-1081), 2, Selen Hırçın Riegel, çev., İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi, ISBN 9786055093020
  • Ostrogorsky, Georg (2015), Bizans Devleti Tarihi, Fikret Işıltan, çev. (8 ed.), Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, ISBN 9789751603487
  • Vasiliev, Alexander A. (2016), Bizans İmparatorluğu Tarihi, Tevabil Alkaç, çev., İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları, ISBN 9786051712659
  • Yavuz, Mehmet Fatih (2014), Byzantion: Byzas'tan Constantinus'a Antik İstanbul, İstanbul: İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, ISBN 9786054642304
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.