Meitei people

The Meitei people (also conventionally known as Manipuri people[11]) are an ethnic group native to the state of Manipur in northeastern India. The Meitei primarily settled in the Imphal Valley region in modern-day Manipur, although a sizable population have settled in Assam, Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram;[1][12] with notable presence in the neighbouring countries of Myanmar and Bangladesh.[1][10][13] The Meitei ethnic group represents about 53% of Manipur's population.[14]

Meitei people
A Meitei woman in traditional attire
Total population
1,800,000+[1] (2011)
Regions with significant populations
 India1,760,913[2]
          Manipur1,522,132[3]
          Assam168,127[4]
          Tripura23,779[5]
          Nagaland9,511[6]
          Meghalaya4,451[7]
          Arunachal Pradesh2,835[8]
          Mizoram2,242[9]
 Myanmar25,000[10]
 Bangladesh15,000[1]
Languages
Meitei
Religion
Hinduism,Sanamahism
Related ethnic groups
Nagas, Kukis, Zomis, Bamar, Shan
Part of a series on
Meitei people
History
Culture
People
Religion
Politics

Endonyms and exonyms

The Meitei are known by a number of endonyms, Meitei, Meetei, Meithei (Meitei), and as well as by numerous exonyms, such as Manipuri, Cassay-Shan, and Kathe (Burmese). The term Manipuri is widely used, but problematic because of its ambiguous scope: next to being a synonym for Meitei/Meetei, it can also refer in a wider sense to the native ethnic groups (i.e. excluding recent immgrants) of Manipur.[11]

The etymological origins of the word "Meitei" are contested; the term may have descended from the word Mitei, which means "modeled in God's image."[15] Another etymological origin of "Meitei" is that it comes from two different Meitei words: mei meaning "fire", and tei meaning "touch" or "paint." Combining the two words gives a philosophical meaning of "purified by fire": after death, Meitei burn the deceased body hoping the soul gets purified and goes to Koubru the place which Meitei believe human originated.

History
Main article: History of Manipur

The origins of the Meitei people are not conclusively known. What is known is that their settlement on a fertile plain and valley regions of the Imphal River and the tributaries of the Manipur River enabled the Meitei to develop sophisticated wet rice cultivation systems, which supported a denser population and drove the development of a more complex political and social system than in adjacent hill areas.[16]

According to the royal chronicle, Cheitharol Kumbaba, the Manipuri valley was ruled by 9 different clans or tribes, which later merged into seven.[17] Before the reign of King Nongta Lairen Pakhangba (1st century), some ethnic groups of people were lived in the Valley. They were the Mangangs, the Chakpas, the Khabas and the Chengleis (See also Kinship system).[18] Between the 1st and 10th centuries, the tribes consolidated under a feudal system over time, owing to the military prowess of the Mangang or Ningthouja tribe.[17] During this process, neighboring hill tribes were also absorbed into the seven clans through migration, a process that continued well into the 1800s.[17]

The Meiteis are East Asian, but they also have some Indo-European admixture.[19] Sir James Johnstone, who was the political agent in Manipur, writes: "The Manipuris themselves are a fine stalwart race descended from an Indo-Chinese stock, with some mixture of Aryan blood, derived from the successive waves of Aryan migration that have passed through the valley in pre-historic days".[20] Jhalajit Singh believes Indo-Aryans came to Manipur and married local women in the first centuries of the common era (CE).[21] Scholars and writers, such as E. Dun (1992), Hodson (1908, 2), and M. Bhattarcharya (1963, 183) also support the tradition that the Meiteis were originally East Asian, a close kin with the tribal people in the hills, and later intermarried with Indo-European people.

The people from the East came to Manipur in different periods of history. They were Shans, a little of the Chines and the Burmese. There were some immigrants from the Upper Burma in the reign of Nongta Lailen Pakhangba (1st century), Naoting Khong (7th century) and King Khunmomba (13th century) and they became Meiteis. In the reigns of Ningthou-Khomba, Kyamba and Ming Yamba, some of fresh immigrants also became Meiteis. But after reign of King Khangemba (1597–1652) there was little immigration from the East.[18]

The earliest written record of their existence dates back to 1445 CE, during the kingdom of Kangleipak.[22]

With the Meitei kingdom's expansion eastward (beyond the Chindwin River by the 1400s) came increased interaction and conflict with the Tai-speaking Shans and Burmans.[23] The Meitei conquest of the Kabaw valley accelerated the establishment of social and trade relationships between the Burmans and the Meitei, including matrimonial alliances between the royal houses.[23] The Meitei however, remained a staunch constant threat to security, with constant raids and battles fought close to the Burmese royal capitals.[23]

The Burmese Toungoo dynasty was endangered by frequent invasions under Garib Niwaz.[24] However, the Burmese underwent a military renaissance in the latter half of the 1700s, with the rise of Alaungpaya's Konbaung dynasty, which ended this persistent pattern of Meitei raids, through devastating defensive military campaigns waged on the Meitei kingdom, which led to the demise of the Meitei monarchy; Burmese interference in Manipur came to an end with the First Anglo-Burmese War, in which the Burmese ceded complete control of Manipur to the British.[24][25]

In 1891, the British Indian Empire suppressed a rebellion in Manipur and incorporated it as part of British Raj as a princely state. Before the British departed India, Manipur acceded to India on 11 August 1947, becoming part of the Dominion of India. On 21 September 1949, Manipur signed a merger agreement, ostensibly under coercion, after which the princely rule was abolished and Manipur was incorporated as a Union Territory of India. Since 1980, armed conflict against India by separatist rebel groups started, that combines elements of a national liberation war as well as an ethnic conflict.

Language
Main article: Meitei language

The Meitei people speak Meiteilon (also known as Manipuri), a Tibeto-Burman language. Meiteilon is one of the officially recognized languages of India, and was included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India in 1992.[26]

Historically, Meitei was written in an indigenous Meitei Mayek script;[27] the script was replaced by the an alphabet based on the Bengali-Assamese script in the early 18th century.[28] The Meitei Mayek script has seen a revival in recent decades, and is now seen in street signs, newspapers, literature, and legislative proceeding records.[29]

In Assam Manipuri language is taught at the primary level, and at the graduate level in Gauhati University; though it is not one of the associate languages in the state.[30] In Bangladesh Manipuri is not language and the Manipuri people are educated in Bengali rather than in their native Manipuri.[31]

Some of the most notable Meitei historical literary works, written by court scholars, include:

Kinship system

The Meitei people are made up of seven major clans, known as Salai Taret.[32] The clans include Mangang, Luwang, Khuman, Angom, Moilang, Khaba-Nganba and (Chenglei) Sarang-Leishangthem.

Meiteis reckon kinship through both affinal and consanguineal relationships. The Meitei word for "kin" is mari mata and the relationship mari-mata thoknaba literally means "to have relationship". Schematically, there are two types of kinship: luhonglaga thok naba mari (affinal relation) and ee-gi mari leinaba (consanguineal relation).

Meitei kinship is classified at three levels: by clan or kin (yek-salai), by lineage (sagei) and by family (imung manung). Under each of the 7 Meitei clans exists many sageis.

The kinship terms in Meitei are unilineal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Meitei kinship terms are classificatory with an exception of some descriptive terms. There are only four descriptive kin terms in Meiteilon

  1. ima 'mother'
  2. ipa 'father'
  3. iku/ikubok 'father-in-law'
  4. inem/inembok 'mother-in-law'

Meitei clans in pre-historic period

Some ethnic groups of people were lived in Kangleipak, now known as Manipur, before the accession of King Nongta Lairen Pakhangba (1 st century). They were the Mangangs, the Chakpas, the Khabas and the Chengleis etc. These ethnic groups had well defined separate regions in the valley and surrounding hills. Mangangs Ningthou Punsiba, Ngasapa, Sakappa, Wankakpa, Kaksuba, Ton Konpa, Pitingkoi, Lampicha, Tali and Konphucha were the chiefs of Mangangs. The chiefs names are mentioned in various manuscripts of Manipur . A group of people lived in Manipur before Christ which can be known from the tale of God Koriphaba where two families were mentioned i.e. Haorakchams and Konthaojams .They were belonged to the Chengleis. Nongtam Shangba, Pakhang Yoirenba, Ningthou Langba and Maliya Pambalcha (who introduced Palcha kumching) etc. were chiefs of the Chengleis. In the period of Naophongba (428–518 AD), the Chengleis were known as Sarang leisangthems. According to Royal Chronicle, King Naophongba had two sons viz Sameirong and Thamalong. Sameirong ascended the Manipur Valley. Thamalong descendants were called Ningthouja clan which was introduced during the reign of King Sameirong. later on, Mangangs and Ningthouja came to be known as Ningthouja clan. According to a meitei manuscript, the chiefs who lived in the Nongmaijing hills and in the middle portion of Irin river were addressed by the word 'Angom'. The Angoms are one of the clans of Meiteis who are found during the reign of Pakhangba. The Luwangs and the Khumans were descendents of Poirenton who occupied south east of Imphal valley before the accession of King Pakhangba. Later, they were expelled from there by King Pakhangba and their domain ceased. So, they were concentrated on Koubru Hills. As per historical records Pakhangba was Brother's in law of Poireiton as Pakhangba's Queen was Poirenton's sister. Poirenton and his horde belonged to Mongolian race. The Chakpas can be considered as Moirangs. Chakpas were known as Keke Moirang in earlier times.[33] The Mangangs, the Khabas and the Chengleis were closely allied people inhabiting in the Manipur were the first race and another race, called Nganbas, a clan of Meiteis were assimilated with Khabas and came to be known as Kha Nganbas.[18] Nganbas can be considered as the Shans of Upper Burma. Later on, all these seven clans were United and known as Meiteis. Besides, Ningthouja clan, other remaining clans had their own kingships though they were known as the nobles of the Meiteis. The royal Chronicle says that no one knows when and how the first seven ancient Kings of each clan died and vanished. They were considered as Gods and their children were considered as human beings.[18]

Calendar
Main article: Meitei calendar
Further information: Sanamahi creation myth § Seven days of Creation

The Meitei follow a traditional calendar called Maliyafam Palcha Kumsing, which has 12 months and a 7-day week, like the Gregorian calendar.[34]

Culture
Lai haraoba Dance
Raslila in Manipuri Dance style

Most of the rich culture of Manipur can be credited to the Meiteis. Since ancient times the valley region of Manipur was trading crossroads between India and Myanmar and gradually the valley portion of Manipur became the melting pot of Indo-Burman culture. The famous Manipuri dance form had its roots from the Lai Haraoba dance form.

They are also known for their contribution to art, literature and cinema. M.K. Binodini Devi, Khwairakpam Chaoba Singh, Ratan Thiyam, Aribam Syam Sharma, Rajkumar Shitaljit Singh, Elangbam Nilakanta Singh, Heisnam Kanhailal and Sabitri Heisnam are some of the prominent personalities in the field.

The Meitei people are very fond of horse riding.

Art

The Manipuri martial art Thang-ta is a combative sport which had its origin from the Meitei knights during the kings rule. It involves various fighting techniques with swords and spears.

Theatre and cinema
Main article: Cinema of Manipur

The first Manipuri film, Matamgi Manipur, was released on 9 April 1972.[35] Paokhum Ama (1983) is the first full-length colour feature film (according to the Academy's definition of a feature film)[36] of Manipur and was directed by Aribam Syam Sharma. Lammei (2002) is the first Manipuri Video film to have a commercial screening at a theatre.[37] As the production of video films gained momentum, the Manipur film industry got expanded and around 40–50 films are made each year.

Religion and festivals
Further information: Sanamahism and Sanamahi creation myth

According to the 2011 census, Meiteis follow only two religions, with overwhelming majority of Meiteis practicing variants of Hinduism. Around 14% of Meiteis traditionally believe in Sanamahi religion named after god Sanamahi. Meiteis follow both Hindu as well as Sanamahi religious traditions and rituals. For example, they worship Sanamahi in the south-west corners of their homes.[38] The various types of festivals that are the most significant, and are celebrated with great joy by meiteis are Rasalila, Janmastami, Holi, Lai Haraoba, Cheiraoba, Yaosang, Jagannath Rath Yatra, Holi, Diwali, Ram Navami etc.

Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Manipur

Rice, vegetables, fish and meat are staple food of the Meiteis. Rice is by a one or several sides. The vegetables are either made as stews (Kangsoi) with less oil used in sauteing, or stir fried directly in oil and many spices to make an oily spicy side dish (Kanghou). Roasted dried fish or fried fresh fish is usually added in most of the stews and curry to impart special taste. The vegetables, herbs and fruits consumed in the region are more similar to those in Southeast/East/Central Asian, Siberian, Polynesian and Micronesian cuisines such as Myanmar, Thailand, etc. E.g. treebean (youngchaak), galangal (loklei), culantro (awa phadigom), lime basil (mayangton), fishwort (toningkhok) and many others, which are not cultivated in northern India. One of the most important ingredients in Meitei cooking is Ngari (fermented fish). Roasted ngari is used in the singju (a kind of salad), morok metpa (chilli chutney), iromba (boiled and mashed veggies with chillies). A variety of fermented bamboo shoots (soibum) as well as fresh bamboo shoots, and fermented soya beans (hawaijaar) also form an important of Meitei cuisine. All meals are served with some fresh aromatic herbs on the side. A typical every day Meitei meal will have rice, vegetable or fish curry, a piquant side dish (either morok metpa or iromba accompanied with herbs), a champhut (a sweet vegetable, e.g., carrot, pumpkin or cucumber slices just steamed or boiled with a little sugar), and a Kanghou. Meitei occasionally or weekly eat meat like Yen (chicken), Nganu thongba (duck meat), and Oak thongba (pork) to celebrate birthday or when a guest arrived at their home.Some meiteis even eat many red meats like San thongba, Hameng thongba, and Hui thongba to parties with their colleagues on occasions like New Year celebration, birthday party, and wedding ceremonies.

Clothing

Meitei women wear Phanek which is a kind of Sarong but has a unique style. They are either horizontal stripe pattern which is called Phanek mayeknaibi or single block colour. The ends are decorated with high embroidery. It is usually accompanied by a blouse and a matching enaphi which is like a Dupatta but usually transparent.

Subsistence

The Meitei are mainly agriculturists in which rice is a staple crop. However, they also grow mangoes, lemons, pineapples, oranges, guavas, and other fruits. Fishing is also common among the Meitei that can either be a profession or a hobby. Women tend to dominate the local markets as sellers of food items, textiles, and traditional clothing.[39]

Sports

Ancient sports are still in existence while some got extinct, a few got spread throughout the world.

Some sports are worth mentioned as follows:

They introduced polo to the west when the British came to Manipur valley during the kings rule. It is locally called Sagol Kangjei. It is believed that the game was played by the Gods of Meiteis as a practice of warfare. According to Chaitharol-Kumbaba, a Royal Chronicle of Manipur King Kangba who ruled Manipur much earlier than Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (33 AD) introduced Polo.

Kang Sanaba is a game played under a shed of building on an earth ground (court) smoothly levelled to suit the course of the 'Kang' the target on the court. It is well marked for the respective positions of the players of both to hit the target on the court. It has rules and regulations formed by the associations to suit the occasions of the games either for competitive tournaments or friendly entertainment. The dignitaries of the Palace, even Queen and King also participated on social functions.

Mukna a unique form of wrestling popular amongst the Meiteis.

Mukna Kangjei also known as Khong Kangjei is a game which combines the arts of mukna (wrestling hockey) and Kangjei (Cane Stick) to play the ball made of seasoned bamboo roots.[3] The origin of the game dates to Aniconic worship. People celebrate Lai Haraoba (festival to please traditional deities) and include this item to mark the end of the festival. It was believed that Khagemba Ningthou (King, 1597–1652) patronised this game.

Yubi lakpi is a traditional full contact game played by Meiteis using a coconut, which has some notable similarities to rugby.[1] Yubi lakpi literally means "coconut snatching". The coconut is greased to make it slippery. There are rules of the game, as with all Manipur sports. It is played on the lush green turf. Each side has 7 players in a field with about 45x18 meters in area.[6] The goal post is 4.5x3 meters box in the central portion of the goal line. The coconut serves the purpose of a ball and is offered to the king, the chief guest or the judges before the game begins. The aim is to run while carrying the greased coconut and physically cross over the goal line, while the other team tackles and blocks any such attempt as well as tries to grab the coconut and score on its own.

Oolaobi (Woo-Laobi) is an outdoor game mainly played by females.[1] Meitei mythology believes that Umang Lai Heloi-Taret (seven deities–seven fairies) played this game on the Courtyard of the temple of Umang Lai Lairembi. The number of participants is not fixed but are divided into two groups (size as per agreement). Players are divided as into Raiders (Attackers) or Defenders (Avoiders).

The Raiders say "oo" without stopping as long as they can continue and try to touch the Avoiders. If a Raider touches an Avoider while saying "oo", the Avoider is out. This process goes on till all Avoiders are out or surrender. If a raider fails to say "oo" or is out of breath, the Raider is out. Points are counted on the elimination of Raiders/Defenders.

If Raiders are tired they declare for change and a time limit is decided on. The principles of Oolaobi are very similar to Kabaddi in India. The ground (court) is not marked; normally the open space in the premises of the house or temple is used for the game. Oolaobi, sometimes spelled Woolaobi, is very popular with girls and a source of talent in Kabaddi.

Heeyang Tanaba (Hi Yangba Tanaba) is a traditional boat rowing race[1] and festivity of the Panas. This is held during the month of November. This was introduced during the time of Ningthourel Khunjaoba, the second son of King Khagemba, who dug the Kangla Moat around the Palace to make it impregnable in the year of 1660 after he ascended the throne in 1652. In the traditional function two boats "Tanahi" (Race Boat) are detailed for leaders known as "Tengmai Lappa". In each boat forty Hiroys (Boatsman) operate the boat. The boat which reaches the finishing line is the winner and all boatsman raise their (Now) oars high in the air as a sign of reaching the finishing line first and thus the winner of the race is declared. The leader pays his respect to the deity and the King of Manipur.

Arambai Hunba People of Manipur are very fond of riding horses specially those who are in the village near the breeding areas. Since the ponies are easily available, the young boys get the chance of riding ponies without saddle on horse back. Sometimes they ride horse using a rope in place of regular bridle throwing branches of small trees in place of Arambai. This practice helped the Meitei Arambai force as a martial art which was very much required during the advance and withdrawal of forces. This art was very popular as an indigenous game of the Meitei youths.

Some outdoor games formerly played by children are nearly extinct. These include Khutlokpi, Phibul Thomba, Kanthali, and Chaphu Thugaibi.

Notable Meitei
Main article: List of Meitei People

Diaspora

Myanmar (Burma)
An 1855 watercolour of a Kathe horseman in the Burmese royal service

Myanmar is home to a sizable community of Meiteis, who are called Kathe in Burmese.[23] Unlike other Hindu communities in Myanmar, the Meitei resemble other Burmese ethnic groups in terms of physical appearance, which has accelerated their assimilation and integration into Burmese society.[23] In the early 1950s, Burmese Meiteis numbered approximately 40,000, with a third of them residing in Mandalay.[40] Current estimates are approximately 25,000.[10] Meiteis have resettled throughout the country, including in villages near Myitkyina to the north, Homalin, Kalewa, Pyay, in the center of the country, and Yangon to the south.[40] They continue to practice Hinduism in Myanmar.[41]

As a result of wars between Meitei kingdom and the Konbaung dynasty between the 17th and 18th centuries, many Meiteis were resettled in the Burmese kingdom.[17] Some Meitei settlements in modern-day Myanmar originate from the 1758–1759 war, and from the Burmese occupation of Manipur from 1819 to 1826.[17][40] Alaungpaya, during the former campaign, resettled Meiteis in Sagaing and Amarapura.[40] The Meitei people's horsemanship skills were employed in the Burmese royal army, where they formed the elite Cassay cavalry (ကသည်းမြင်းတပ်) and artillery regiments (ကသည်းအမြောက်တပ်) which were employed during the Burmese–Siamese wars.[24] The Burmese court also retained a retinue of Meitei Brahmins called Bamons, also called Kathe Ponna (ကသည်းပုဏ္ဏား) to advise and conduct court rituals.[40]

See also

References
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    P.20: "historically, academically and conventionally Manipuri prominently refers to the Meetei people."
    P.24: "For the Meeteis, Manipuris comprise Meeteis, Lois, Kukis, Nagas and Pangal."
  12. "Festivals in Meghalaya, Fairs and Festivals of Meghalaya". Travelhot.in. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
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  19. (Hodson 1908)
  20. (Johnstone 1896, 97)
  21. "As a result of the fusion of Indo-Aryans and [East Asian] peoples, the nucleus of the Manipuri speaking people (Meiteis) of today was formed" (Singh 1992, 19–20)
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  35. "Manipuri Cinema". kanglafilms.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  36. "91st Academy Awards Rules" (PDF). The Oscars. Retrieved 4 November 2019.
  37. "From Manipur, stories of the women actors who didn't get to play Mary Kom". The Indian Express. 17 August 2014.
  38. "'Inclusion of Sanamahi religion in minority is being reviewed' : 27th aug11 ~ E-Pao! Headlines". www.e-pao.net. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
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  40. Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  41. "စစ်ကိုင်းမြို့တွင် ကသည်းမယ်တော်ကြီးချိုးရေတော်သုံးပွဲကျင်းပ" [Three festivals of Kathe Maedaw Gyi Cho Ye Taw held in Sagaing]. Eleven Broadcasting. 13 June 2019.

Further reading
  • Kshetrimayum, Otojit. (2014). Ritual, politics and power in north east India: Contexualising the Lai Haraoba of Manipur. New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co.
  • Singh, Saikhom Gopal. (2014). The Meeteis of Manipur: A study in human geography. New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co.
  • Singh, Saikhom Gopal. (2014). Population geography of Manipur. New Delhi: Ruby Press & Co.
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