Pensionado Act

The Pensionado Act is Act Number 854 of the Philippine Commission, which passed on 26 August 1903. Passed by the United States Congress, it established a scholarship program for Filipinos to attend school in the United States. The program has roots in pacification efforts following the Philippine–American War. It hoped to prepare the Philippines for self-governance and present a positive image of Filipinos to the rest of the United States. Students of this scholarship program were known as pensionados.

Pensionado Act
Philippine Commission
Enacted byInsular Government of the Philippine Islands
Passed26 August 1903
Introduced byBernard Moses
Summary
Provide for select Filipinos to receive education in the United States
Status: Expired

From the initial 100 students, the program provided education in the United States to around 500 students. They would go on to be influential members of the Philippine society, with many of the alumni of the program going on to work for the government in the Philippine Islands. Due to their success, other immigrants from the Philippines followed to be educated in the United States, in excess of 14,000. Many of these non-pensioned students ended up permanently residing in the United States. In 1943, the program ended. It was the largest American scholarship program until the Fulbright Program was established in 1948.

During World War II, Japan initiated a similar program during its occupation of the Philippines, named nampo tokubetsu ryugakusei. Following the War, and Philippine independence, Filipino students continued to come to the United States utilizing government scholarships.

Background

During the Spanish era of the Philippines, officially from the years 1565 to 1898, education other than that provided by religious institutions, was not generally available to the average Filipino until after 1863.[1] Following the Spanish–American War in 1898, the Philippines was annexed by the United States due to the Treaty of Paris, and it became a territory of the United States.[2][3] As a consequence, Filipinos became nationals of the United States.[4] However, Filipinos who supported the independence of the First Republic of the Philippines clashed with American authority, and fought an unsuccessful conflict with the United States.[3][5] At the behest of American soldiers, well-to-do families began to send their children to the United States for education; one example was Ramon Jose Lascon, who went on to earn his Ph.D. at Georgetown University at the age of 20.[6] This followed a trend of well-to-do Asian families sending students to the United States, with Chinese students first coming to the United States beginning in 1847, and Japanese students coming to the United States beginning in 1866.[7]

The first school established by the United States in the Philippines was on Corregidor.[8] Following the establishment of the Philippine Commission, it began to pass legislation to provide for public education, primarily Act Number 74 in 1901, which established public schools.[9][10] In 1902, Act Number 372 established public secondary education in each provincial capital.[10][11] However, there was a lack of educators, with many soldiers taking up the task of becoming teachers.[12][13] In an attempt to increase the number of educators in the Philippines, over 500 teachers from the United States were sent there aboard the USAT Thomas, arriving in 1901; these teachers would later be known as Thomasites.[10][14] These teachers from the United States were also tasked to train Filipinos to become teachers; however, schools continued to have a shortage of educators.[12][15]

Passage

Then-Governor General William Howard Taft asked for more to be done to foster goodwill between Filipinos and Americans.[16] On 26 August 1903, Act 854 of the Philippine Commission—the Pensionado Act—was passed.[6] It was then passed by the United States Congress.[17][18] Initially envisioned by Professor Bernard Moses in July 1900, the program was to pacify Filipino opposition following the Philippine–American War, as well as prepare the islands for self-governance, by showing the difference between Spain and the United States through exposure to American values.[6] Additionally, the program was to expose the United States to "the best and brightest Filipino youths" to "make a favorable impression" of the Philippines in the United States.[19]

Implementation
The first 100 pensionados at the 1904 St. Louis Exposition

The program was initially overseen by David Prescott Barrows, the Philippines' director of education at the time.[20][lower-alpha 1] In its first year, 1903, there were twenty thousand applicants, of which about a hundred were selected.[21] Those selected became the first pensionados, students who were accepted by this scholarship program.[28] These early pensionados were chosen from the wealthy and elite class of Filipinos.[23][29][30] Prior to taking college courses, the initial pensionados attended high school in the continental United States for the purpose of language and culture acclimation.[31] In some areas of the United States, the pensionados were some of the first Filipinos to immigrate to those areas; as was the case for Chicago,[32] New York City,[33] Riverside,[34] San Diego,[35] and Ventura County, California.[26] As much as a quarter of the initial batch of pensionados went to school in the Chicago region.[23][36]

During the second year of the program, the first Pinay (Filipino women) pensionados were chosen, numbering five out of a total of thirty-nine; this created a gender imbalance favoring Pinoy (Filipino men) pensionados.[24] In 1904, pensionados served as guides and waiters at the Philippines exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition;[27] there they were a contrast to the Igorots, who also represented Filipinos to the attendees of the world's fair.[37] In 1905, only three Pinay pensionados were chosen out of a total of thirty-seven pensionados beginning the program.[24] As the program continued, the number of pensionados steadily increased, with there being 180 pensionados in 1907, and 209 in 1912.[38] Among the pensionados were some of the first Filipino nursing students to come to the United States.[39] Only seven years after the program began, the initial 100 pensionados had all returned to the Philippines.[40][41] Beginning in 1908, with the opening of the University of the Philippines, the program shifted its focus from undergraduate studies to graduate studies.[42][43] There was a pause in the program between 1915 and 1917.[44] In 1921, the Philippine government was supporting 111 pensionados, 13 of whom were working towards a doctoral degree.[45]

From 1903 until 1938, pensionados traveled to the United States to study, with the majority returning to the Philippines.[46] In 1943, the program ended.[47][48] Pensionados would go on to serve within the government established in the islands by the United States;[49] this was a scholarship requirement, and had to be at least 18 months of government service.[50] Before returning to the Philippines, pensionados began student-run newspapers, which were part of the beginning of media geared specifically to the Filipino diaspora in the United States.[51] While, initially, pensionados were chosen from wealthy and elite families, later pensionados were more likely not to come from wealthy families.[25] Due to the Great Depression funding for the program was reduced.[52] For instance, in 1930, there were but thirteen pensionados, eleven of whom were funded fully by the Philippine government, two of whom were partially funded, and another six were formerly funded by the Philippine government but remained in the United States to complete their education at their own expense.[53] Near the end of World War II, the Commonwealth Government in Exile was offered to have some of the pensionados trained in foreign relations, anticipating the 1946 independence of the Philippines from the United States.[54]

Schools attended

Pensionados went on to attend many colleges and universities, including the following:

Impact

Upon returning to the Philippines, pensionados were often called "American boys" and faced discrimination from other Filipinos.[60] This discrimination was due to the view that the returning pensionados were associated with American authority of the Philippines.[61] Some of the later Filipino immigrants to the United States, who were not the children of the well-to-do in the Philippines like the pensionados were, shared this resentment.[62] Carlos Bulosan, an English-language Filipino novelist and poet, wrote of this social divide.[62] Some of the returning pensionados would go on to help the development of Filipino nationalism.[63]

Carlos P. Romulo, a pensionado alum, soldier, and diplomat.

A majority of the returning pensionados were assigned as educators, with some later becoming superintendents.[12] For instance, University of Michigan alum Esteba Adaba became the director of education for the Philippines under the Roxas Administration;[64] he would then go on to become a Philippine senator.[65] Jorge Bocobo, an Indiana University alum, went on to become President of the University of the Philippines.[42][66] Returning pensionados who studied nursing established nursing schools, whose students would go on to immigrate around the world to fill nursing shortages.[67] Pensionado Bienvenido Santos made his name as an author.[42] Other pensionados took influential roles in government,[68] including Secretary of Finance Antonio de las Alas,[68] Senator Camilo Osias,[68][69] Major General Carlos P. Romulo,[42] and Chief Justice José Abad Santos.[42] When architects began to be registered in the Philippines in 1921, a pensionado was the second to be registered.[70] Ultimately, about 500 pensionados received scholarships to be educated in the United States.[47][71][lower-alpha 2]

Other students

The success of returning pensionados enticed others to immigrate to the United States, including non-pensionados who self-financed their higher education, including some veterans of the United States Navy.[74] By the 1920s, these self-financed students outnumbered the pensionados.[75] The aspiration of education advancement became a dominant theme for those Filipinos coming to the United States.[76] Known as "fountain pen boys", by 1920 nearly five thousand Filipino students had attended American schools, receiving post-secondary education.[72] In 1922 alone, there were almost 900 Filipinos attending college in the United States.[77] So many Filipinos would seek to advance their education that by 1930, they were the third largest population of students from outside of the continental United States, only surpassed by Chinese and Canadian students;[41] some of those Chinese students were attending using a similar government funding method known as the Boxer Indemnity.[78] By 1938, around 14,000 Filipino students had received their education in the United States, some going onto important positions upon returning to the Philippines.[21][79]

Some of these students would go on to fund their education as domestic workers, with some attending Chapman College and the University of Southern California, with a few earning graduate degrees.[55] Others attempted to fund their education by working as farmworkers;[80] one immigrant to do so was Philip Vera Cruz.[72] Many of these self-funding students would not return to the Philippines, instead settling in the United States.[81][82] E. Llamas Rosario, for example, earned graduate degrees from Columbia University and New York University and went on to found the Filipino Pioneer, a newspaper published in Stockton, California.[83] Along with those who immigrated to the United States without educational aspirations, these Filipinos started the second wave of immigration to the United States from the Philippines.[84] Educated Filipinos who settled in the United States faced racial discrimination when looking for jobs in their trained industries.[85] In addition, laws barred Filipinos from professional employment, such as the ones in California which barred non-citizens the ability to gain professional licenses.[86]

Similar programs

In 1909, due to an overpayment by China to the United States of funds for damages caused during the Boxer Rebellion, the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship was established.[87] It has its roots in an idea proposed by Edmund James, then the Chancellor of the University of Illinois.[87] Subsequent payments made by China to the United States relating to the Boxer Rebellion were deferred, as long as they were spent for the scholarship.[87] A school, Qinghua Preparatory School which was jointly operated by China and the United States, was opened to train students who would be traveling to the United States.[88] This scholarship lasted until 1937;[89] about 2,000 Chinese students were funded by the scholarship.[90]

During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, the Japanese government sponsored students to study in Japan, with two groups being sent Japan in 1943 and 1944.[91] The program was administrated out of the former American School in Japan by a part of the Ministry of Greater East Asia.[92] Prior to departing for Japan, the students were disciplined by the Second Republic Constabulary to cleanse their thinking of anti-Japanese sentiments;[93] this was conducted at Malacañang, but only after the students had passed individual interviews with a panel of Japanese officials which included General Wachi.[92] In total there were a total of 51 students who studied in Japan under the program, referred to as "Nantoku" ナントク.[94]

In 1946, after the Philippines became an independent nation, thousands more Filipinos came to the United States for education through the Fulbright Program.[95] The Fulbright exchanges have since become a larger program than the pensionado program.[22] A similar but smaller program funding the education of Filipinos in the United States was done under the Smith–Mundt Act, which was specific for civic leaders.[96]

Inspired legislation

In the early 21st century, legislators have introduced bills named after the Pensionado Act in the Senate of the Philippines. In 2010, Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago submitted the "Pensionado Act of 2010", which remained in committee.[97] In 2017, Senator Sonny Angara submitted "Pensionado Act of 2017" which was referred to committee of the Philippine Senate in the 17th Congress, with no additional action taken;[98] following the conclusion of the 17th Congress, Senator Angara submitted similar legislation titled "Pensionado Act of 2019" to the current Philippine Senate.[99]

See also

Footnotes
  1. Sources differ on how large the initial group of pensionados are. A few source says 100,[17][21][22][23] other sources say 103,[24][25] and some other sources say 104.[26][27]
  2. Another source says that there were around 5,000 pensionados prior to 1920.[72] Another source says that there were over 14,000 by 1938.[73]

References
  1. Dacumos, Rory (August 2015). Philippine Colonial Education System (Report). pp. 1–2. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
    Hardacker, Erin P. (Winter 2012). "The Impact of Spain's 1863 Educational Decree on the Spread of Philippine Public Schools and Language Acquisition". European Education. 44 (4): 8–30. doi:10.2753/EUE1056-4934440401. S2CID 144175781. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
    "Did You Know: Educational Decree of 1863". Philippine Daily Inquirer. 20 December 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2018.
  2. Linn, Brian McAllister (1989). The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899-1902. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 9–11.
  3. McMahon, Robert J.; Zeiler, Thomas W. (2 August 2012). Guide to U.S. Foreign Policy: A Diplomatic History. SAGE Publications. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4522-3536-3.
  4. "The Filipino Diaspora in the United States" (PDF). Rockefeller-Aspen Diaspora Program. Migration Policy Institute. February 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2014. Retrieved 25 December 2014. Lay summary (21 October 2014). Alt URL
  5. Linn, Brian McAllister (1 January 2000). The Philippine War, 1899-1902. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-0990-1.
    Plante, Trevor K. (Summer 2000). "Researching Service in the U.S. Army During the Philippine Insurrection". Prologue. Vol. 32 no. 2. National Archives. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
  6. Francisco, Adrianne Marie (Summer 2015). From Subjects to Citizens: American Colonial Education and Philippine Nation-Making, 1900-1934 (PDF) (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
    United States. Congress (1912). Congressional edition. U.S. G.P.O. p. 167.
  7. Baylon Sorenson, Krista (22 April 2011). Shallow Roots: An Analysis of Filipino Immigrant Labor in Seattle from 1920-1940 (Honors Program). Butler University. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  8. Steinbock-Pratt, Sarah (2 May 2019). Educating the Empire: American Teachers and Contested Colonization in the Philippines. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-108-47312-5.
  9. "Vocational Education Within The Public School System Of The Philippines". Illinois Education. Illinois Education Association. 1914. p. 59.
    "Historical Perspective Of The Philippine Educational System". Department of Education. Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  10. Acierto, Maria Guillen (June 1980). American Influence in Shaping Philippine Secondary Education: An Historical Perspective 1898-1978 (Doctoral dissertation). Loyal University of Chicago. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  11. Calderon, J. (1998). Foundations of Education. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 449. ISBN 978-971-23-2212-9.
  12. Casambre, Napoleon J. (1982). "The Impact of American Education in the Philippines" (PDF). Educational Perspectives. 21 (4): 7–14. Retrieved 4 August 2018 – via University of Hawaii at Manoa.
  13. 1967 Congressional Record, Vol. 113, Page H31952
    "The Soldier Teacher in the Philippines". Harper's Weekly. New York: Harper's Magazine Company. 1902. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  14. Thompson, Roger M. (1 January 2003). Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching from Multiple Perspectives. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 20–21. ISBN 90-272-4891-5.
    1968 Congressional Record, Vol. 114, Page H21327
    Davis, Rocio G. (24 June 2014). "John D. DeHuff's Memoirs of Orient Seas: The Thomasite Experience Revisited". Life Writing. 11 (3): 293–311. doi:10.1080/14484528.2014.928724. S2CID 159574850.
  15. Reyes, Bobby (18 March 2009). "The "Thomasite" Teachers Are Indeed Back in America". Mabuhay Radio. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
    "Education: Thomasite Troubles". Time. 12 April 1937. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  16. John W. Collins; Nancy Patricia O'Brien (31 July 2011). The Greenwood Dictionary of Education: Second Edition. ABC-CLIO. p. 343. ISBN 978-0-313-37930-7.
  17. Essie E. Lee (2000). Nurturing Success: Successful Women of Color and Their Daughters. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-275-96033-9.
  18. Willie V. Byran (2007). Multicultural Aspects of Disabilities: A Guide to Understanding and Assisting Minorities in the Rehabilitatiion Process. Charles C Thomas Publisher. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-398-08509-4.
  19. Paul A. Kramer (13 December 2006). The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-8078-7717-3.
  20. Reyes, Bobby M. (5 April 2011). "From Bulusan to Bulosan: Reviving the "Pensionado" Tradition". Mabuhay Radio. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  21. Shelley Sang-Hee Lee (1 October 2013). A New History of Asian America. Routledge. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-1-135-07106-6.
  22. Hazel M. McFerson (2002). Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 92–94. ISBN 978-0-313-30791-1.
  23. Bevis, T. (26 November 2007). International Students in American Colleges and Universities: A History. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-230-60975-4.
  24. Nancy Foner; Ruben G. Rumbaut; Steven J. Gold (16 November 2000). Immigration Research for a New Century: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Russell Sage Foundation. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-61044-829-1.
  25. Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian (30 November 2004). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
  26. Elnora Kelly Tayag (2011). Filipinos in Ventura County. Arcadia Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7385-7473-8.
  27. Barkan, Elliott Robert (2013). Immigrants in American History: Arrival, Adaptation, and Integration. ABC-CLIO. p. 350. ISBN 978-1-59884-219-7.
  28. "Pensionados". A Century of Challenge and Change: The Filipino American Story. Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Program. 2006. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  29. Elliott Robert Barkan (1 January 1999). A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 203–204. ISBN 978-0-313-29961-2.
  30. "Filipino Migration to the United States". The Philippine History Site. University of Hawaii at Manoa. 2001. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
  31. Yoon K. Pak; Dina C. Maramba; Xavier J. Hernandez (25 March 2014). Asian Americans in Higher Education: Charting New Realities: AEHE Volume 40, Number 1. Wiley. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-118-88500-0.
  32. Posadas, Barbara M.; Guyotte, Roland L. (Spring 1990). "Unintentional Immigrants: Chicago's Filipino Foreign Students Become Settlers, 1900-1941". Journal of American Ethnic History. 9 (2): 26–48. JSTOR 27500756.
  33. Chan, Michelle Vanessa Wang (4 May 2017). The Filipino Community in New York from 1898 to 1946 –In search of the Promised Land (Thesis). Hong Kong Baptist University. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  34. Trajano, Christian Arquillo (2006). "Filipina/os in Riverside". Asian American Riverside. University of California, Riverside. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  35. Patacsil, Judy; Jr., Rudy Guevarra; Tuyay, Felix (2010). Filipinos in San Diego. Arcadia Publishing. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-7385-8001-2.
  36. John P. Koval; Larry Bennett; Michael Bennett (2006). The New Chicago: A Social and Cultural Analysis. Temple University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-59213-772-5.
  37. Miescher, Stephan F.; Mitchell, Michele; Shibusawa, Naoko (9 March 2015). Gender, Imperialism and Global Exchanges. Wiley. p. 190. ISBN 978-1-119-05218-0.
    Okihiro, Gary Y (25 August 2015). American History Unbound: Asians and Pacific Islanders. Univ of California Press. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-0-520-27435-8.
  38. Jonathan H. X. Lee (16 January 2015). History of Asian Americans: Exploring Diverse Roots: Exploring Diverse Roots. ABC-CLIO. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-313-38459-2.
  39. Wayne, Gil (26 May 2015). "History of Nursing in the Philippines". Nurses Labs. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
    Yves Boquet (19 April 2017). The Philippine Archipelago. Springer. p. 391. ISBN 978-3-319-51926-5.
  40. Karas, Rachel; Encarnacion, John Carlo; Tang, Annie (27 June 2019). "Pinoy Panthers: The History of Filipino and Filipina Students at Chapman University". Library. Chapman University. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
  41. Ng, Franklin (23 June 2014). Asian American Family Life and Community. Taylor & Francis. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-136-80122-8.
  42. John D. Buenker; Lorman A. Ratner; Lorman Ratner (2005). Multiculturalism in the United States: A Comparative Guide to Acculturation and Ethnicity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-313-32404-8.
  43. Marquardt, W.W. (February 1945). "An Unparalleled Venture in Education". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 4 (2): 135–139. doi:10.2307/2048963. JSTOR 2048963.
  44. Lan Dong (14 March 2016). Asian American Culture: From Anime to Tiger Moms [2 volumes]: From Anime to Tiger Moms. ABC-CLIO. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-4408-2921-5.
  45. Philippines. Gobernador-General; Philippines. Governor (1922). Report of the Governor General of the Philippine Islands to the Secretary of War. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 93.
  46. Joe Alan Austin; Michael Willard (June 1998). Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America. NYU Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-8147-0645-9.
  47. Mary Yu Danico (19 August 2014). Asian American Society: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. p. 681. ISBN 978-1-4833-6560-2.
  48. James Ciment; John Radzilowski (17 March 2015). American Immigration: An Encyclopedia of Political, Social, and Cultural Change: An Encyclopedia of Political, Social, and Cultural Change. Taylor & Francis. p. 2832. ISBN 978-1-317-47716-7.
  49. Knake, J. Matthew (Spring 2014). "Education Means Liberty: Filipino Students, Pensionados and U.S. Colonial Education" (PDF). Western Illinois Historical Review. 6. ISSN 2153-1714.
  50. Dennis O. Flynn; Arturo Giráldez; James Sobredo (18 January 2018). "The 1934 Tydings-McDuffie Act and Filipino Exclusion: Social, Political and Economic Context Revisited". Studies in Pacific History: Economics, Politics, and Migration. Taylor & Francis. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-351-74248-1.
  51. Regis, Marie P. (Fall 2013). Mediating!Global!Filipinos:!The!Filipino!Channel!and!the!Filipino!Diaspora (PDF) (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  52. Regis, Ethel Marie P. (Fall 2013). Mediating Global Filipinos: The Filipino Channel and the Filipino Diaspora (PDF) (Doctor of Philosophy in Ethnic Studies dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  53. Hurley, Patrick J.; Hoover, Herbert; Davis, Dwight F. (1931). "Pensionados". Annual Report of the Governor General, Philippine Islands: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Annual Report of the Governor General of the Philippine Islands for the Year Ended ... U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 61.
  54. Hull, Cordell (24 March 1944). "The Secretary of State to the Philippine Resident Commissioner to the United States (Elizalde)" (PDF). Letter to Joaquín Miguel Elizalde. Retrieved 1 September 2018 – via University of Wisconsin.
  55. Linda España-Maram (25 April 2006). Creating Masculinity in Los Angeles's Little Manila: Working-Class Filipinos and Popular Culture, 1920s-1950s. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-231-51080-6.
  56. Jon Sterngass (2007). Filipino Americans. Infobase Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4381-0711-0.
  57. Victor Román Mendoza (11 November 2015). Metroimperial Intimacies: Fantasy, Racial-Sexual Governance, and the Philippines in U.S. Imperialism, 1899-1913. Duke University Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-8223-7486-2.
  58. Judy Patacsil; Rudy Guevarra, Jr.; Felix Tuyay (2010). Filipinos in San Diego. Arcadia Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7385-8001-2.
  59. Office of Historical Resources (April 2018). Los Angeles Citywide Historical Context Statement; Context (PDF) (Report). City of Los Angeles. p. 12. SurveyLA. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  60. Dina C. Maramba; Rick Bonus (1 December 2012). The 'Other' Students: Filipino Americans, Education, and Power. IAP. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-62396-075-9.
  61. Lan Dong Ph.D. (14 March 2016). Asian American Culture: From Anime to Tiger Moms [2 volumes]: From Anime to Tiger Moms. ABC-CLIO. p. 302. ISBN 978-1-4408-2921-5.
  62. Ono, Kent A. (15 April 2008). A Companion to Asian American Studies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 304. ISBN 978-1-4051-3709-6.
  63. Manalansan, Martin F.; Espiritu, Augusto (10 May 2016). "The Field: Dialogues, Visions, Tensions, and Aspirations". Filipino Studies: Palimpsests of Nation and Diaspora. NYU Press. pp. 1–14. ISBN 978-1-4798-8435-3.
  64. The Michigan Alumnus. UM Libraries. 1946. p. 318. UOM:39015071120854.
  65. "Esteban Abada". Senate of the Philippines. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  66. Medina, Marielle (19 October 2016). "DID YOU KNOW: Jorge Bocobo". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Philippines. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  67. Rodis, Rodel (12 May 2013). "Why are there so many Filipino nurses in the US?". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
    Varona, Rae Ann (2 May 2018). "Honoring the inspiration of Fil-Am nurses this National Nurses Week". Asian Journal. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
    Robles, Nathalie (3 May 2019). "Why Filipino nurses are a huge presence in U.S. health care". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
  68. Lambino, John X. (August 2015). "Political-Security, Economy, and Culture within the Dynamics of Geopolitics and Migration: On Philippine Territory and the Filipino People" (PDF). Research Project Center. 15 (4). Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  69. "Oasis, Camilo". History, Art & Archives. United States House of Representative. Retrieved 30 August 2018.
  70. Alcazaren, Paulo (7 September 2002). "Philippine architecture in the 1950s". Philippine Star. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  71. Espuerra, Maria Paz Gutierrez (2013). Interracial Romances of American Empire: Migration, Marriage, and Law in the Twentieth Century California (doctoral thesis). University of Michigan. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
  72. Craig Scharlin; Lilia V Villanueva (2000). Philip Vera Cruz: A Personal History of Filipino Immigrants and the Farmworkers Movement. University of Washington Press. pp. xx–xxi. ISBN 978-0-295-80295-4.
  73. Tyner, James A. (22 December 2010). The Philippines: Mobilities, Identities, Globalization. Routledge. pp. 1984–1985. ISBN 978-1-135-90547-7.
  74. Estella Habal (28 June 2007). San Francisco's International Hotel: Mobilizing the Filipino American Community in the Anti-Eviction Movement. Temple University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-59213-447-2.
  75. Cecilia M. Tsu (18 July 2013). Garden of the World: Asian Immigrants and the Making of Agriculture in California's Santa Clara Valley. Oxford University Press USA. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-19-973477-1.
    Melvin Ember; Carol R. Ember; Ian Skoggard (30 November 2004). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
  76. Posadas, Barbara M.; Guyotte, Roland L. (Summer 1992). "Aspiration and Reality: Occupational and Educational Choice among Filipino Migrants to Chicago, 1900-1935". Illinois Historical Journal. 85 (2): 89–104. JSTOR 40192594.
  77. United States. Bureau of Insular Affairs (1922). Directory of Filipino Students in the United States.
  78. Madeline Y. Hsu (27 April 2015). The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority. Princeton University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4008-6637-3.
    R. Garlitz; L. Jarvinen (6 August 2012). Teaching America to the World and the World to America: Education and Foreign Relations since 1870. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-137-06015-0.
  79. Robert M. Jiobu. Ethnicity and Assimilation: Blacks, Chinese, Filipinos, Koreans, Japanese, Mexicans, Vietnamese, and Whites. SUNY Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-4384-0790-6.
    Uma Anand Segal (2002). A Framework for Immigration: Asians in the United States. Columbia University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-231-12082-1.
  80. Calaustro, Edna (21 May 1992). "Filipino Immigration to the U.S." Synapse. University of California, San Francisco. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  81. Melendy, H. Betty (November 1974). "Filipinos in the United States". Pacific Historical Review. 43 (4): 520–547. doi:10.2307/3638431. JSTOR 3638431.
  82. Murray, Vince; Solliday, Scott. The Filipino American Community (PDF) (Report). City of Phoenix. Asian American Historic Property Survey. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  83. "ROSARIO, E. Llamas "Bert"". San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco. 3 January 2002. Retrieved 4 August 2018 – via SFGate.
    Vengua, Jean (Fall 2010). Migrant Scribes and Poet-Advocates: U.S. Filipino Literary History in West Coast Periodicals, 1905 to 1941 (PDF) (Doctor of Philosophy dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  84. Fern L. Johnson (2000). Speaking Culturally: Language Diversity in the United States. SAGE. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-8039-5912-5.
    2005 Congressional Record, Vol. 151, Page S13593 (14 December 2005)
  85. Perez, Frank Ramos; Perez, Leatrice Bantillo (Winter 1994). "Filipinos in San Joaquin County" (PDF). The San Joaquin Historian. VIII (4): 3–19. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  86. Estrella Piring, Jr., Donald (Fall 2016). Kain Na! The Life and Times of Calros Bulosan (PDF) (Masters Thesis). California State University, Sacramento. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
    Castillo, Adelaida (Summer 1976). Moss, James E (ed.). "Filipino Migrants in San Diego 1900-1946". The Journal of San Diego History. 22 (3). Retrieved 25 August 2018.
    Frazier, John W.; Tettey-Fio, Eugene (2006). Race, Ethnicity, and Place in a Changing America. Global Academic Publishing. p. 272. ISBN 978-1-58684-264-2.
  87. Zhou, Xiaojuan (Spring 2014). The Influences Of The American Boxer Indemnity Reparations Remissions On Chinese Higher Education (Masters thesis). University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  88. Kramer, Paul A. (November 2009). "Is the World Our Campus? International Students and U.S. Global Power in the Long Twentieth Century" (PDF). Diplomatic History. 33 (5): 775–806. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.2009.00829.x.
  89. Hsu, Mandeline Y.; Chafe, William; Gerstle, Gary; Gordon, Linda; Zelizer, Julian (11 April 2017). "Gateways and Gates in American Immigration History" (PDF). The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority. Princeton University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0691-17-621-5.
  90. Li, Hongshan; Hong, Zhaohui (1998). Image, Perception, and the Making of U.S.-China Relations. University Press of America. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-7618-1158-9.
  91. Saniel, Josefa M. (16 February 1991). The Study of Japan in the Philippines: Focus on the University of the Philippines (PDF). Kyoto, Japan: International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
  92. Goodman, Grant K. (August 1962). An Experiment in Wartime Intercultural Relations: Philippine Students in Japan, 1942-1945 (PDF). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University.
  93. M.c. Halili (2004). Philippine History. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 232. ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9.
  94. "An Abridged Historical Commentary on the ASEAN Council of Japan Alumni (ASCOJA)". Philippines-Japan Society, Inc. 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
    Ken'ichi Goto (2003). Tensions of Empire: Japan and Southeast Asia in the Colonial and Postcolonial World. NUS Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-9971-69-281-0.
  95. Artemio R. Guillermo (2012). Historical Dictionary of the Philippines. Scarecrow Press. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-8108-7246-2.
  96. Lay, James S. (5 April 1954). "No. 359 Memorandum by the Executive Secretary (Lay) to the National Security Council". Office of the Historian. United States Department of State. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
    Sicat, Gerardo P. (28 March 2018). "A dream of foreign education fulfilled". The Philippine Star. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
  97. "Pensionado Act of 2010". Senate Bill No. 2498. Senate of the Philippines. 27 September 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  98. "Pensionado Act of 2017". Senate Bill No. 1343. Senate of the Philippines. 22 February 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
  99. Angara, Sonny (27 August 2019). "Pensionado Act of 2019". Legislative Documents. Senate of the Philippines. Retrieved 17 September 2019.

Further reading
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.