Sex differences in cognition

Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among men and women. Among biological factors, hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities, the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities, social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.

Part of a series on
Sex differences in humans
Physiology
Medicine
Neuroscience
Sociology

Cognitive abilities

Cognitive abilities are mental abilities that a person uses in everyday life, as well as specific demand tasks. The most basic of these abilities are memory, executive function, processing speed and perception, which combine to form a larger perceptual umbrella relating to different social, affective, verbal and spatial information. Memory, which is one of the primary core of cognitive abilities can be broken down into short-term memory, working memory and long-term memory. There are also other abilities relating to perceptual information such as mental rotation, spatial visualization ability, verbal fluency and reading comprehension. Other larger perceptual umbrellas include social cognition, empathy, spatial perception and verbal abilities.

Sex differences in memory

Short term memory

Various researchers have conducted studies to determine the differences between men and women and their abilities within their short-term memory. For example, a study conducted by Lowe, Mayfield, and Reynolds (2003) examined gender differences among children and adolescents on various short-term memory measures. This study included 1,279 children and adolescents, 637 males and 642 females, between the ages of 5 and 19. They found that females scored higher on two verbal subtests: Word Selective Reminding and Object Recall, and males scored higher on the Memory for Location and Abstract Visual Memory subtests, the key spatial memory tasks. In two different studies researchers have found that women perform higher on verbal tasks and men perform higher on spatial tasks (Voyer, Voyer, & Saint-Aubin, 2016). These findings are consistent with studies of intelligence with regards to pattern, females performing higher on certain verbal tasks and males performing higher on certain spatial tasks (Voyer, Voyer, & Saint-Aubin, 2016). Same results have been also found cross culturally.[1] Sex differences in verbal short-term memory have been found regardless of age even among adults, for example a review published in the journal Neuropsychologia which evaluated studies from 1990 to 2013 found greater female verbal memory from ages 11–89 years old.[2][3]

Working memory

There are usually no sex differences in overall working memory except those involving spatial information such as space and object. A 2004 study published in the journal of Applied Cognitive Psychology found significantly higher male performance on four visuo-spatial working memory.[4] Another 2010 study published in the journal Brain and Cognition found a male advantage in spatial and object working memory on an n-back test but not for verbal working memory.[5] Similarly another study published in the journal Human Brain Mapping found no sex differences in a verbal n-back working memory task among adults from ages 18–58 years old.[6] There was also no sex differences in verbal working memory among a study of university students published in the Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences. However, they still found greater male spatial working memory in studies published in the journals Brain Cognition and Intelligence.[7][8] Also, even though they found no sex differences in verbal working memory, researchers have found lower brain activity or thermodynamics in the prefrontal cortex of women which suggested greater neural efficiency and less effort for the same performance.[9] Researchers indicate women might have greater working memory on tasks that only relies on the prefrontal cortex.[9] A 2006 review and study on working memory published in the journal European Journal of Cognitive Psychology also found no gender differences in working memory processes except in a double-span task where women outperformed men.[10] There have also been no sex differences found in a popular working memory task known as n-back among a large number of studies.[9][10][11][12][13]

Long term memory

Studies have found a greater female ability in episodic memory involving verbal or both verbal and visual-spatial tasks while a higher male ability that only involves complex visual-spatial episodic memory.[14][15] For example, a study published in the journal Neuropsychology found that women perform at a higher level on most verbal episodic tasks and tasks involving some or little visual-spatial episodic memory.[16] Another study published the following year found that women perform at a higher level in verbal and non-verbal (non-spatial visual) episodic memory but men performed at a higher level in complex visual-spatial episodic memory.[17] A review published in the journal Current Directions in Psychological Science by researcher Agneta Herlitz also conclude that higher ability in women on episodic-memory tasks requiring both verbal and visuospatial episodic memory and on face-recognition tasks.[14]

Sex differences in semantic memory have also been found with a higher female ability which can be explained by a female advantage in verbal fluency.[18] One other study also found greater female free-recall and long term retrieval among the ages 5–17.[19]

Sex differences in executive functions

There has not been enough literature or studies assessing sex difference in executive functioning, especially since executive functions are not a unitary concept. However, in the ones that have been done, there have been differences found in attention and inhibition.

Attention

A 2002 study published in the Journal of Vision found that males were faster at shifting attention from one object to another as well as shifting attention within objects.[20] 2012–2014 studies published in the Journal of Neuropsychology with a sample size ranging from 3500 to 9138 participants by researcher Ruben C Gur found higher female attention accuracy in a neurocognitive battery assessing individuals from ages 8–21.[21][22] A 2013 study published in the Chinese Medical Journal found no sex differences in executive and alerting of attention networks but faster orientation of attention among females.[23] A 2010 study published in Neuropsychologia also found greater female responsiveness in attention to processing overall sensory stimulation.[24]

Inhibition and self-regulation

A 2008 study published in the journal Psychophysiology found faster reaction time to deviant stimuli in women.[25] The study also analyzed past literature and found higher female performance in withholding social behavior such as aggressive responses and improper sexual arousal.[25] Furthermore, they found evidence that women were better at resisting temptation in tasks, delaying gratification and controlling emotional expressions.[25] They also found lower female effort in response inhibition in equal performance for the same tasks implying an advantage for females in response inhibition based on neural efficiency.[25] In another study published in 2011 in the journal Brain and Cognition, it was found that females outperformed males on the Sustained Attention to Response Task which is a test that measures inhibitory control.[26] Researchers have hypothesized that any female advantage in inhibition or self-regulation may have evolved as a response to greater parenting responsibilities in ancestral settings.[25]

Sex differences in processing speed

Sex differences in processing speed has been largely noted in literature. Studies published in the journal Intelligence have found faster processing speed in women. For example, a 2006 study published in Intelligence by researcher Stephen Camarata and Richard Woodcock found faster processing speed in females across all age groups in a sample of 4,213 participants.[27] This was followed by another study published in 2008 by researchers Timothy Z Keith and Matthew R. Reynolds who found faster processing speed in females from ages 6 to 89 years old.[28] The sample also had a number of 8,818 participants.[28] Other studies by Keith have also found faster processing speed in females from ages 5 to 17.[19]

Sex differences in semantic perception

Studies of sex differences in semantic perception (attribution of meaning) of words reported that males conceptualize items in terms of physical or observable attributes whereas females use more evaluative concepts.[29][30] Another study of young adults in three cultures showed significant sex differences in semantic perception (attribution of meaning) of most common and abstract words. Contrary to common beliefs, women gave more negative scores to the concepts describing sensational objects, social and physical attractors but more positive estimations to work- and reality-related words, in comparison to men [31] This suggests that men favour concepts related to extreme experience and women favour concepts related to predictable and controllable routines. In a light of the higher rates of sensation seeking and deviancy in males, in comparison to females, these sex differences in meaning attribution were interpreted as support for the evolutionary theory of sex.[32]

Sex differences in spatial abilities
Rubik's cube puzzle involving mental rotation

Sex differences in spatial abilities are widely established in literature. Males have much higher level of performance in three major spatial tasks which include spatial visualization, spatial perception and mental rotation.[33][34] Spatial visualization elicits the smallest difference with a deviation of 0.13, perception a deviation of 0.44 and mental rotation the largest with a deviation of 0.73.[33][35][36] Another 2013 meta-analysis published in the journal Educational Review found greater male mental rotation in a deviation of 0.57 which only grew larger as time limits were added.[37] These male advantages manifests themselves in math and mechanical tasks for example significantly higher male performance on tests of geometry, measurement, probability, statistics and especially mechanical reasoning.[38] It also manifests and largely mediates higher male performance in arithmetic and computational fluency[39] All of these math and technical fields involve spatial abilities such as rotation and manipulation of imagined space, symbols and objects. Mental rotation has also been linked to higher success in fields of engineering, physics and chemistry regardless of gender.[40] Spatial visualization on the other hand also correlate with higher math achievement in a range of 0.30 to 0.60.[41] Furthermore, male advantage in spatial abilities can be accounted for by their greater ability in spatial working memory.[7] Sex differences in mental rotation also reaches almost a single deviation (1.0) when the tasks require navigation, as found in one study with participants who used Oculus Rift in a virtual environment.[42]

Even though most spatial abilities are higher in men, object location memory or the ability to memorize spatial cues involving categorical relations are higher in women.[2] Higher female ability in visual recognition of objects and shapes have also been found.[43][44]

Sex differences in verbal abilities

Like spatial ability, sex differences in verbal abilities have been widely established in literature. There is a clear higher female performance on a number of verbal tasks prominently a higher level of performance in speech production which reaches a deviation of 0.33 and also a higher performance in writing[34][35][45][46][47] Studies have also found greater female performance in phonological processing, identifying alphabetical sequences, and word fluency tasks.[48][49][50] Studies have also females outperforming males in verbal learning especially on tests such as Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and Verbal Paired Associates.[51][52] and A 2010 study published in the Journal of Advanced Prosthodentics found women showed significantly higher speech intelligibility scores than men and differences in acoustic (sound) parameters.[53] Meanwhile, in another studies, a female advantage in generating synonyms and solving anagrams have also been found.[35] Furthermore, a 2009 study published in the Archive of Clinical Neuropsychology found better female performance in writing that reached about 8 points in a sample of 22–80 year old adults, in relation to better male performance in math which reached about 4 points.[54] It has also been found that the hormone estrogen increases ability of speech production and phonological processing in women, which could be tied to their advantages in these areas.[38] Overall better female performance have also been found in verbal fluency which include a trivial advantage in vocabulary and reading comprehension while a significantly higher performance in speech production and essay writing.[40][45] This manifests in higher female international PISA scores in reading and higher female Grade 12 scores in national reading, writing and study skills.[55][56] Researchers Joseph M. Andreano and Larry Cahill have also found that the female verbal advantage extends into numerous tasks, including tests of spatial and autobiographical abilities.[15] Another 2008 study published in the journal Act Psychologica found no sex differences in remembering phonologically-unfamiliar novel words but higher female ability to remember phonologically-familiar novel words.[57] Meanwhile, higher depth of processing in semantic analysis among females compared to males have also been found in brain imaging studies,[58] while greater female performance in many verbal abilities might be linked to their higher verbal memory.[2] A 2013 study published in the International Journal of Psychology also found an adult female advantage in time for performing a verbal lexical task and temperament scale of social-verbal tempo.[59]

Sex differences in social cognition
Main article: Sex differences in emotional intelligence

Current literature suggests women have higher level of social cognition. A 2012 review published in the journal Neuropsychologia found that women are better at recognizing facial effects, expression processing and emotions in general.[60] Men were only better at recognizing specific behaviour which includes anger, aggression and threatening cues.[60] A 2012 study published in the journal Neuropsychology with a sample of 3,500 individuals from ages 8–21, found that females outperformed males on face memory and all social cognition tests.[61] In 2014, another study published in the journal Cerebral Cortex found that females had larger activity in the right temporal cortex, an essential core of the social brain connected to perception and understanding the social behaviour of others such as intentions, emotions, and expectations.[62] In 2014, a meta-analysis of 215 study sample by researcher A.E. Johnson and D Voyeur in the journal Cognition and Emotion found overall female advantage in emotional recognition.[63] Other studies have also indicated greater female superiority to discriminate vocal and facial expression regardless of valence, and also being able to accurately process emotional speech.[64] Studies have also found males to be slower in making social judgments than females.[65] Structural studies with MRI neuroimaging has also shown that women have bigger regional grey matter volumes in a number of regions related to social information processing including the Inferior frontal cortex and bigger cortical folding in the Inferior frontal cortex and parietal cortex [65] Researchers suppose that these sex differences in social cognition predisposes males to high rates of autism spectrum disorders which is characterized by lower social cognition.[65]

Empathy
Main article: Sex differences in emotional intelligence § Empathy

Empathy is a large part of social cognition and facilitates its cognitive components known as theory of mind. Current literature suggests a higher level of empathy in woman compared to men. Reviews, meta-analysis and studies of physiological measures, behavioral tests, and brain neuroimaging, however, revealed mixed findings.[66][67][68][69][70] Whereas experimental and neuropsychological measures show no reliable sex effect, self-report data consistently indicates greater empathy in females.[66] The research from Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience compared age-related sex differences in both self-report and neurophysiological measures of empathic arousal in sixty-five 4–17-year-old children. Self-report indicated greater responsivity by females, which increased with age, while implicit hemodynamic and physiological measures did not demonstrate any gender-related patterns.[67]

See also

References
  1. Mann, Virginia A.; Sasanuma, Sumiko; Sakuma, Naoko; Masaki, Shinobu (1990-01-01). "Sex differences in cognitive abilities: A cross-cultural perspective". Neuropsychologia. 28 (10): 1063–1077. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(90)90141-A. PMID 2267058. S2CID 23833686.
  2. Li, Rena (2014-09-01). "Why women see differently from the way men see? A review of sex differences in cognition and sports". Journal of Sport and Health Science. 3 (3): 155–162. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2014.03.012. PMC 4266559. PMID 25520851.
  3. "Sex differences in verbal learning". ResearchGate. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198811)44:63.0.CO;2-8 (inactive 2021-01-11). Retrieved 2016-01-24.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2021 (link)
  4. Bosco, Andrea; Longoni, Anna M; Vecchi, Tomaso (2004-07-01). "Gender effects in spatial orientation: cognitive profiles and mental strategies". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 18 (5): 519–532. doi:10.1002/acp.1000. ISSN 0888-4080. PMC 2909401. PMID 20676381.
  5. Lejbak, Lisa; Crossley, Margaret; Vrbancic, Mirna (2011). "A Male Advantage for Spatial and Object but Not Verbal Working Memory Using the N-Back Task". Brain and Cognition. 76 (1): 191–196. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2010.12.002. ISSN 0278-2626. PMID 21411205. S2CID 205789245.
  6. Schmidt, Heike; Jogia, Jigar; Fast, K.; Christodoulou, Tessa; Haldane, Morgan; Kumari, V.; Frangou, S. (2009-11-01). "No gender differences in brain activation during the N-back task: an fMRI study in healthy individuals". Human Brain Mapping. 30 (11): 3609–3615. doi:10.1002/hbm.20783. ISSN 1097-0193. PMC 6870785. PMID 19387979.
  7. Kaufman, Scott Barry (2007). "Sex differences in mental rotation and spatial visualization ability: Can they be accounted for by differences in working memory capacity?". Intelligence. 35 (3): 211–223. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.009.
  8. Duff, S. J.; Hampson, E. (2001-12-01). "A sex difference on a novel spatial working memory task in humans". Brain and Cognition. 47 (3): 470–493. doi:10.1006/brcg.2001.1326. ISSN 0278-2626. PMID 11748902. S2CID 41875374.
  9. Li, Ting; Luo, Qingming; Gong, Hui (2010-05-01). "Gender-specific hemodynamics in prefrontal cortex during a verbal working memory task by near-infrared spectroscopy". Behavioural Brain Research. 209 (1): 148–153. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.01.033. ISSN 1872-7549. PMID 20117145. S2CID 2454243.
  10. Robert, Michèle; Savoie, N. (2006). "Are there gender differences in verbal and visuospatial working-memory resources?". European Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 18 (3): 378–397. doi:10.1080/09541440500234104. S2CID 144420975.
  11. "N -back task to assess sex difference in working memory: A pilot study". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2016-02-02.
  12. Harness, Ashley (2008). "Sex differences in working memory". Psychological Reports. 103 (5): 214–8. doi:10.2466/PR0.103.5.214-218. PMID 18982954. Retrieved 2016-02-02.
  13. Goldstein, Jill M.; Jerram, Matthew; Poldrack, Russell; Anagnoson, Robert; Breiter, Hans C.; Makris, Nikos; Goodman, Julie M.; Tsuang, Ming T.; Seidman, Larry J. (2005-07-01). "Sex differences in prefrontal cortical brain activity during fMRI of auditory verbal working memory". Neuropsychology. 19 (4): 509–519. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.4.509. ISSN 0894-4105. PMID 16060826. S2CID 16100987.
  14. Herlitz, Agneta; Rehnman, J. (2008). "Sex Differences in Episodic Memory". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 17 (1): 52–56. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00547.x. S2CID 145107751.
  15. Andreano, Joseph M.; Cahill, Larry (2009-04-01). "Sex influences on the neurobiology of learning and memory". Learning & Memory. 16 (4): 248–266. doi:10.1101/lm.918309. ISSN 1072-0502. PMID 19318467.
  16. Herlitz, A.; Airaksinen, E.; Nordström, E. (1999-10-01). "Sex differences in episodic memory: the impact of verbal and visuospatial ability". Neuropsychology. 13 (4): 590–597. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.13.4.590. ISSN 0894-4105. PMID 10527068.
  17. Lewin, C.; Wolgers, G.; Herlitz, A. (2001-04-01). "Sex differences favoring women in verbal but not in visuospatial episodic memory". Neuropsychology. 15 (2): 165–173. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.15.2.165. ISSN 0894-4105. PMID 11324860.
  18. Maitland, Scott B.; Herlitz, Agneta; Nyberg, Lars; Bäckman, Lars; Nilsson, Lars-Göran (2004). "Selective sex differences in declarative memory". Memory & Cognition. 32 (7): 1160–1169. doi:10.3758/BF03196889. PMID 15813497. S2CID 39106894. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
  19. Keith, Timothy Z.; Reynolds, Matthew R.; Roberts, L. G.; Winter, A. L.; Austin, C. A. (2011). "Sex differences in latent cognitive abilities ages 5 to 17: Evidence from the Differential Ability Scales—Second Edition". Intelligence. 39 (5): 389–404. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.06.008.
  20. Brown, J. M.; Breitmeyer, B. G.; Hand, J.; Browning, F. (2010). "JOV | Sex differences in shifting attention within and between objects". Journal of Vision. 2 (7): 13. doi:10.1167/2.7.13.
  21. Gur, Ruben C.; R., Jan; Calkins, Monica E.; Chiavacci, R.; Hansen, J. A.; Bilker, Warren B.; Loughead, J.; Connolly, John J.; Qiu, Haijun (2012-03-01). "Age group and sex differences in performance on a computerized neurocognitive battery in children age 8–21". Neuropsychology. 26 (2): 251–265. doi:10.1037/a0026712. ISSN 0894-4105. PMC 3295891. PMID 22251308.
  22. R.Roalf Gur, David Ruben C (2012). "Within-Individual Variability in Neurocognitive Performance: Age and Sex-Related Differences in Children and Youths From Ages 8 to 21". Neuropsychology. 28 (4): 506–518. doi:10.1037/neu0000067. PMC 4175525. PMID 24773417.
  23. Liu, Gang; Hu, Pan-Pan; Fan, Jin; Wang, Kai (2013-06-01). "Gender differences associated with orienting attentional networks in healthy subjects". Chinese Medical Journal. 126 (12): 2308–2312. ISSN 0366-6999. PMID 23786944.
  24. Popovich, C.; Dockstader, C.; Cheyne, D.; Tannock, R. (2010). "Sex differences in sensorimotor mu rhythms during selective attentional processing". Neuropsychologia. 48 (14): 4102–4110. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.016. hdl:1807/24276. PMID 20951711. S2CID 37024633.
  25. Yuan, Jiajin; He, Yuanyuan; Qinglin, Zhang; Chen, Antao; Li, Hong (2008). "Gender differences in behavioral inhibitory control: ERP evidence from a two-choice oddball task". Psychophysiology. 45 (6): 986–993. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00693.x. PMID 18778319.
  26. Hansen, Stefan (2011-08-01). "Inhibitory control and empathy-related personality traits: Sex-linked associations". Brain and Cognition. 76 (3): 364–368. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.04.004. PMID 21570758. S2CID 12273654.
  27. Camarata, Stephen; Woodcock, Richard (2006). "Sex differences in processing speed: Developmental effects in males and females". Intelligence. 34 (3): 231–252. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.12.001.
  28. Keith, Timothy Z.; Reynolds, M.R.; Patel, P.G.; Ridley, Kristen P. (2008). "Sex differences in latent cognitive abilities ages 6 to 59: Evidence from the Woodcock–Johnson III tests of cognitive abilities". Intelligence. 36 (6): 502–525. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.11.001.
  29. Haas, A. (1979). "Male and female spoken language difficulties: stereotypes and evidence". Psychological Bulletin. 86 (3): 616–626. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.616. S2CID 16973813.
  30. Poole, M.E. (1982). "Social class-sex contrasts in patterns of cognitive style: a cross-cultural replication". Psychological Reports. 50: 19–26. doi:10.2466/pr0.1982.50.1.19. S2CID 143679219.
  31. Trofimova, IN (2012). "Understanding misunderstanding: a study of sex differences in meaning attribution". Psychological Research. 77 (6): 748–760. doi:10.1007/s00426-012-0462-8. PMID 23179581. S2CID 4828135.
  32. Trofimova, I. (2015). "Do psychological sex differences reflect evolutionary bi-sexual partitioning?". American Journal of Psychology. 128 (4): 485–514. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485. JSTOR 10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0485. PMID 26721176. S2CID 4831736.
  33. Linn, Marcia C.; Petersen, Anne C. (1985). "Emergence and Characterization of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability: A Meta-Analysis". Child Development. 56 (6): 1479–1498. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1985.tb00213.x. PMID 4075870.
  34. Weiss, Elisabeth M.; Kemmler, Georg; Deisenhammer, Eberhard A.; Fleischhacker, W.Wolfgang; Delazer, Margarete (2003). "Sex differences in cognitive functions". Personality and Individual Differences. 35 (4): 863–875. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00288-X. Retrieved 2016-02-01.
  35. Maclntyre, Tadhg (1997). "Gender differences in cognition: A minefield of research issues". The Irish Journal of Psychology. 18 (4): 386–396. doi:10.1080/03033910.1997.1010558158.
  36. Donnon, Tyrone; DesCôteaux, Jean-Gaston; Violato, Claudio (2005-10-01). "Impact of cognitive imaging and sex differences on the development of laparoscopic suturing skills". Canadian Journal of Surgery. 48 (5): 387–393. ISSN 0008-428X. PMC 3211902. PMID 16248138.
  37. Maeda, Yukiko; Yoon, So Yoon (2012-12-09). "A Meta-Analysis on Gender Differences in Mental Rotation Ability Measured by the Purdue Spatial Visualization Tests: Visualization of Rotations (PSVT:R)". Educational Psychology Review. 25 (1): 69–94. doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9215-x. ISSN 1040-726X. S2CID 143641936.
  38. Differences, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Understanding the Biology of Sex and Gender; Wizemann, Theresa M.; Pardue, Mary-Lou (2001-01-01). "Sex Affects Behavior and Perception". National Academies Press (US). Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  39. Geary, D. C.; Saults, S. J.; Liu, F.; Hoard, M. K. (2000-12-01). "Sex differences in spatial cognition, computational fluency, and arithmetical reasoning". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 77 (4): 337–353. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.413.1464. doi:10.1006/jecp.2000.2594. ISSN 0022-0965. PMID 11063633.
  40. (us), National Academy of Sciences; (us), National Academy of Engineering; Engineering, and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and (2006-01-01). "Women in Science and Mathematics". National Academies Press (US). Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  41. van Garderen, Delinda (2006-12-01). "Spatial visualization, visual imagery, and mathematical problem solving of students with varying abilities". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 39 (6): 496–506. doi:10.1177/00222194060390060201. ISSN 0022-2194. PMID 17165617.
  42. Foroughi, C. K.; Wren, W. C.; Barragan, D.; Mead, P. R.; Boehm-Davis, D. A. (2016). "Assessing Mental Rotation Ability in a Virtual Environment with an Oculus Rift". Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 59 (1): 1849–1852. doi:10.1177/1541931215591399. S2CID 147973407.
  43. McGivern, Robert F.; Mutter, Kandis L.; Anderson, Julie; Wideman, Graham; Bodnar, Mark; Huston, Patrick J. (1998). "Gender differences in incidental learning and visual recognition memory: Support for a sex difference in unconscious environmental awareness". Personality and Individual Differences. 25 (2): 223–232. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00017-8. Retrieved 2016-01-07.
  44. McGivern, R. F.; Huston, J. P.; Byrd, D.; King, T.; Siegle, G. J.; Reilly, J. (1997-08-01). "Sex differences in visual recognition memory: support for a sex-related difference in attention in adults and children". Brain and Cognition. 34 (3): 323–336. doi:10.1006/brcg.1997.0872. ISSN 0278-2626. PMID 9292185. S2CID 2411374.
  45. Reynolds, Matthew R.; Scheiber, Caroline; Hajovsky, D.B.; Schwartz, Bryanna; Kaufman, A. S. (2015-08-01). "Gender Differences in Academic Achievement: Is Writing an Exception to the Gender Similarities Hypothesis?". The Journal of Genetic Psychology. 176 (3–4): 211–234. doi:10.1080/00221325.2015.1036833. ISSN 1940-0896. PMID 26135387. S2CID 609098.
  46. Olson, Richard K.; Hulslander, Jacqueline; Christopher, Micaela; Keenan, Janice M.; Wadsworth, Sally J.; Willcutt, Erik G.; Pennington, Bruce F.; DeFries, John C. (2013-04-01). "Genetic and Environmental Influences on Writing and their Relations to Language and Reading". Annals of Dyslexia. 63 (1): 25–43. doi:10.1007/s11881-011-0055-z. ISSN 0736-9387. PMC 3218215. PMID 21842316.
  47. Scheiber, Caroline; Reynolds, Matthew R.; Hajovsky, Daniel B.; Kaufman, Alan S. (2015). "Gender Differences in Achievement in a Large, Nationally Representative Sample of Children and Adolescents". Psychology in the Schools. 52 (4): 335–348. doi:10.1002/pits.21827.
  48. Majeres, R. L. (1997-12-01). "Sex differences in phonetic processing: speed of identification of alphabetical sequences". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 85 (3 Pt 2): 1243–1251. doi:10.2466/pms.1997.85.3f.1243. ISSN 0031-5125. PMID 9450277. S2CID 21126047.
  49. Majeres, R. L. (1999-03-01). "Sex differences in phonological processes: speeded matching and word reading". Memory & Cognition. 27 (2): 246–253. doi:10.3758/bf03211409. ISSN 0090-502X. PMID 10226435. S2CID 40556596.
  50. Hirnstein, Marco; Coloma Andrews, L.; Hausmann, Markus (2014-01-01). "Gender-Stereotyping and Cognitive Sex Differences in Mixed- and Same-Sex Groups". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 43 (8): 1663–1673. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0311-5. ISSN 0004-0002. PMC 4198804. PMID 24923876.
  51. Basso, M. R.; Harrington, K.; Matson, M.; Lowery, N. (2000-05-01). "Sex differences on the WMS-III: findings concerning verbal paired associates and faces". The Clinical Neuropsychologist. 14 (2): 231–235. doi:10.1076/1385-4046(200005)14:2;1-Z;FT231. ISSN 1385-4046. PMID 10916198. S2CID 43496075.
  52. Gale, Shawn D.; Baxter, Leslie; Connor, D.J.; Herring, A.; Comer, J. (2007-07-01). "Sex differences on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test and the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised in the elderly: normative data in 172 participants". Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology. 29 (5): 561–567. doi:10.1080/13803390600864760. ISSN 1380-3395. PMID 17564921. S2CID 39966895.
  53. Kwon, Ho-Beom (2010-09-01). "Gender difference in speech intelligibility using speech intelligibility tests and acoustic analyses". The Journal of Advanced Prosthodontics. 2 (3): 71–76. doi:10.4047/jap.2010.2.3.71. ISSN 2005-7806. PMC 2994697. PMID 21165272.
  54. Kaufman, A. S.; Kaufman, J. C.; Liu, X.; Johnson, C. K. (2009). "How do Educational Attainment and Gender Relate to Fluid Intelligence, Crystallized Intelligence, and Academic Skills at Ages 22-90 Years?". Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. 24 (2): 153–163. doi:10.1093/arclin/acp015. PMID 19185449.
  55. Stoet, Gijsbert; Geary, David C. (2013-03-13). "Sex Differences in Mathematics and Reading Achievement Are Inversely Related: Within- and Across-Nation Assessment of 10 Years of PISA Data". PLOS ONE. 8 (3): e57988. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...857988S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057988. PMC 3596327. PMID 23516422.
  56. Office of Research, And Development (1998). SAT® and Gender Differences (PDF). Research.Collegeboard. College Board.
  57. Kaushanskaya, Margarita; Marian, Viorica; Yoo, Jeewon (2011-05-01). "Gender differences in adult word learning". Acta Psychologica. 137 (1): 24–35. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.02.002. ISSN 1873-6297. PMC 3080468. PMID 21392726.
  58. Wirth, M.; Horn, H.; Koenig, T.; Stein, M.; Federspiel, A.; Meier, B.; Michel, C. M.; Strik, W. (2007-09-01). "Sex Differences in Semantic Processing: Event-Related Brain Potentials Distinguish between Lower and Higher Order Semantic Analysis during Word Reading". Cerebral Cortex. 17 (9): 1987–1997. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl121. ISSN 1047-3211. PMID 17116651.
  59. Trofimova, I. (2013-01-01). "A study of the dynamics of sex differences in adulthood". International Journal of Psychology. 48 (6): 1230–1236. doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.756981. ISSN 1464-066X. PMID 23442018.
  60. Kret, M. E.; De Gelder, B. (2012-06-01). "A review on sex differences in processing emotional signals". Neuropsychologia. 50 (7): 1211–1221. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.022. PMID 22245006. S2CID 11695245.
  61. Gur, Ruben C.; Richard, Jan; Calkins, Monica E.; Chiavacci, Rosetta; Hansen, John A.; Bilker, W. B.; Loughead, J.; Connolly, J.J.; Qiu, Haijun (2012-03-01). "Age group and sex differences in performance on a computerized neurocognitive battery in children age 8-21". Neuropsychology. 26 (2): 251–265. doi:10.1037/a0026712. ISSN 1931-1559. PMC 3295891. PMID 22251308.
  62. Pavlova, M. A.; Sokolov, A. N.; Bidet-Ildei, Ch. (2015). "Sex Differences in the Neuromagnetic Cortical Response to Biological Motion". Cerebral Cortex. 25 (10): 3468–3474. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu175. PMID 25100856.
  63. Thompson, Ashley E.; Voyer, Daniel (2014-01-01). "Sex differences in the ability to recognise non-verbal displays of emotion: a meta-analysis". Cognition & Emotion. 28 (7): 1164–1195. doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.875889. ISSN 1464-0600. PMID 24400860. S2CID 5402395.
  64. Schirmer, Annett; Zysset, Stefan; Kotz, Sonja A; Cramon, D Yves von (2004). "Gender differences in the activation of inferior frontal cortex during emotional speech perception". NeuroImage. 21 (3): 1114–1123. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.10.048. PMID 15006679. S2CID 7152876.
  65. Hall, Jeremy; Philip, Ruth C. M.; Marwick, Katie; Whalley, Heather C.; Romaniuk, Liana; McIntosh, Andrew M.; Santos, Isabel; Sprengelmeyer, Reiner; Johnstone, Eve C. (2012-12-26). "Social Cognition, the Male Brain and the Autism Spectrum". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e49033. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749033H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049033. PMC 3530576. PMID 23300517.
  66. Baez, Sandra; Flichtentrei, Daniel; Prats, María; Mastandueno, Ricardo; García, Adolfo M.; Cetkovich, Marcelo; Ibáñez, Agustín (June 20, 2017). "Men, women…who cares? A population-based study on sex differences and gender roles in empathy and moral cognition". PLOS ONE. 12 (6): e0179336. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1279336B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0179336. PMC 5478130. PMID 28632770.
  67. Michalska, Kalina J.; Kinzlera, Katherine D.; Decety, Jean (January 2013). "Age-related sex differences in explicit measures of empathy do not predict brain responses across childhood and adolescence". Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 3: 22–32. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2012.08.001. PMC 6987715. PMID 23245217.
  68. Joseph DL, Newman DA (January 2010). "Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model". The Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (1): 54–78. doi:10.1037/a0017286. PMID 20085406.
  69. Christov-Moore L, Simpson EA, Coudé G, Grigaityte K, Iacoboni M, Ferrari PF (October 2014). "Empathy: gender effects in brain and behavior". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 46 (4): 604–27. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001. PMC 5110041. PMID 25236781.
  70. Hertenstein MJ, Keltner D (January 2011). "Gender and the Communication of Emotion Via Touch". Sex Roles. 64 (1–2): 70–80. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9842-y. PMC 3016097. PMID 21297854.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.