Solar desalination

Solar desalination is a technique to produce water with a low salt concentration from sea-water or brine using solar energy. There are two common methods of solar desalination. Either using the direct heat from the sun or using electricity generated by solar cells to power a membrane process.[1]

Water desalination
Methods

History

Methods of solar distillation have been employed by humankind for thousands of years. From early Greek mariners to Persian alchemists, this basic technology has been utilized to produce both freshwater and medicinal distillates. Solar stills were in fact the first method used on a large scale to process contaminated water and convert it to a potable form.[2]

In 1870 the first US patent was granted for a solar distillation device to Norman Wheeler and Walton Evans.[3] Two years later in Las Salinas, Chile, Charles Wilson, a Swedish engineer, began building a direct method solar powered distillation plant to supply freshwater to workers at a saltpeter and silver mine. It operated continuously for 40 years and produced an average of 22.7 m3 of distilled water a day using the effluent from mining operations as its feed water.[4]

Solar desalination of seawater and brackish groundwater in the modern United States extends back to the early 1950s when Congress passed the Conversion of Saline Water Act, which led to the establishment of the Office of Saline Water (OSW) in 1955. The OSW's main function was to administer funds for research and development of desalination projects.[5] One of the five demonstration plants constructed was located in Daytona Beach, Florida and devoted to exploring methods of solar distillation. Many of the projects were aimed at solving water scarcity issues in remote desert and coastal communities.[4] In the 1960s and 1970s several modern solar distillations plants were constructed on the Greek isles with capacities ranging from 2000 to 8500 m3/day.[2] In 1984 a MED plant was constructed in Abu-Dhabi with a capacity of 120 m3/day and is still in operation.[4] In Italy, an open source design called "the Eliodomestico" by Gabriele Diamanti was developed for personal use at the building materials price of $50.[6]

Of the estimated 22 million m3 of freshwater being produced a day through desalination processes worldwide, less than 1% is made using solar energy.[2] The prevailing methods of desalination, MSF and RO, are energy-intensive and rely heavily on fossil fuels.[7] Because of inexpensive methods of freshwater delivery and abundant low cost energy resources, solar distillation has, up to this point, been viewed as cost-prohibitive and impractical.[2] It is estimated that desalination plants powered by conventional fuels consume the equivalent of 203 million tons of fuel a year.[2] With the approach (or passage) of peak oil production, fossil fuel prices will continue to increase as those resources decline; as a result solar energy will become a more attractive alternative for achieving the world's desalination needs.[8]

Methods
The status of renewable-powered desalination technologies.[9]

In the direct method, a solar collector is coupled with a distilling mechanism and the process is carried out in one simple cycle.[10] Solar stills of this type are described in survival guides, provided in marine survival kits, and employed in many small desalination and distillation plants. Water production by direct method solar distillation is proportional to the area of the solar surface and incidence angle and has an average estimated value of 3–4 litres per square metre (0.074–0.098 US gal/sq ft).[2] Because of this proportionality and the relatively high cost of property and material for construction direct method distillation tends to favor plants with production capacities less than 200 m3/d (53,000 US gal/d).[2]

Indirect solar desalination employs two separate systems; a solar collection array, consisting of photovoltaic and/or fluid-based thermal collectors, and a separate conventional desalination plant.[10] Production by indirect method is dependent on the efficiency of the plant and the cost per unit produced is generally reduced by an increase in scale. Many different plant arrangements have been theoretically analyzed, experimentally tested and in some cases installed. They include but are not limited to multiple-effect humidification (MEH), multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), multiple-effect distillation (MED), multiple-effect boiling (MEB), humidification–dehumidification (HDH), reverse osmosis (RO), and freeze-effect distillation.[7]

Indirect solar desalination systems using photovoltaic (PV) panels and reverse osmosis (RO) have been commercially available and in use since 2009. Output by 2013 is up to 1,600 litres (420 US gal) per hour per system, and 200 litres (53 US gal) per day per square metre of PV panel.[11][12] Municipal-scale systems are planned.[13] Utirik Atoll in the Pacific Ocean has been supplied with fresh water this way since 2010.[14]

Indirect solar desalination by a form of humidification/dehumidification is in use in the seawater greenhouse.

Types of indirect solar desalination

Large solar desalination plants are usually driven by indirect methods.[15] Indirect solar desalination processes to extract water is categorized into single-phase processes (membrane based) and phase change processes (non-membrane based).[16] Single-phase desalination uses photovoltaic cells from the solar desalination unit to produce electricity that drive pumps.[17] Phase-change (or multi-phase) solar desalination is a non-membrane based indirect desalination system.[18]

Single-phase desalination processes include reverse osmosis and membrane distillation, where membranes are required for water to flow through.[16][18]Reverse osmosis (RO) makes up about 52% of all indirect solar desalination methods.[15][19][20] Pumps push salt water through RO modules, selected depending on salt water concentrations, at high pressure.[16][19] RO systems operate based on pressure differences. The higher the operating pressure, more energy is required to pump water.[16] To filter out seawater, 55-65 bar pressure is required. An average of 5 kWh/m3 of energy is typically required to run a large-scale RO plant.[19] Membrane distillation (MD) utilizes pressure difference from two sides of a microporous hydrophobic membrane.[19][21] Fresh water can be extracted through four MD methods: Direct Contact (DCMD), Air Gap (AGMD), Sweeping Gas (SGMD) and Vacuum (VMD).[19][21] An estimated water cost of $15/m3 and $18/m3 is generated for medium-scale solar-MD plants.[19][22] Energy consumption using MD methods range from 200-300 kWh/m3.[23] Experimental methods using solar thermal collection to provide this mechanical energy is currently being researched.[24]

Phase-change (or multi-phase) solar desalination is a thermal, non-membrane based indirect desalination system.[18][20][25] This includes multi-stage flash, multi-effect distillation (MED), and thermal vapor compression (VC).[18] It is accomplished by using phase change materials (PCMs) to maximize latent heat storage and high temperatures.[24] MSF phase change temperature range between 80 °C - 120 °C, 40 °C - 100 °C for VC and 50 °C - 90 °C for the MED method.[18][25] Multi-stage flash (MSF) method is the second largest desalination contributor after RO.[20] MSF processes require seawater to travel through a series of vacuumed reactors held at successively lower pressures.[20] Additional heat is added to seawater to capture latent heat of vapor. As seawater flow through the different reactors, steam is collected which is then condensed to produce fresh water.[20] In Multi-effect distillation (MED), seawater flows through successively low pressure vessels and reuses latent heat to vaporize seawater for condensation.[20] MED desalination requires lower energy consumption compared to MSF due to higher efficiency in thermodynamic transfer rates.[20][25]

Multi-phase desalination. Direct methods

Direct methods for multi-phase solar desalination are those which use the sun's thermal energy collected to heat the sea water and produce the vaporization needed for this 2-phase separation. Such methods are relatively simple and require little space so they are normally used on small production systems. However, they have a low production rate due to low operating temperature and pressure, so they are useful on places where the demand of freshwater is below 200 m3/day.[26]

Single-effect solar still

This is a simple device that works using the same natural process of natural rainfall production. A transparent cover encloses a pan where saline water is placed. The latter traps solar energy within the enclosure, heating up the seawater and evaporating it. Condensation is produced on the inner face of the sloping transparent cover, and all the salts, inorganic and organic components and microbes are left behind.

The direct method that a solar still uses has a low productivity, achieving values of 4-5 L/m2/day and efficiency of 30-40%.[27] Several methods have been studied to improve this technology. The basin type is the most commonly used, but there are other kind of improvements:

Efficiency can be improved by up to 45% by using a double slope or with an additional condenser.[28]

In a wick still, feed water flows slowly through a porous radiation-absorbing pad. This requires less volume of water to be heated and it easier to change the angle towards the sun which speeds up its use and higher temperatures can be achieved.

A diffusion still It is composed of two parts, one hot storage tank coupled to the solar collector, and the distillation unit. Heating is produced by the thermal diffusion between those two units.

Increasing the internal temperature by using another external energy source can improve productivity. This is the only active method commented, those above are all passive devices.

Multi-phase desalination. Indirect methods

Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF)
Main article: Multi-stage flash distillation

Multi-stage flash distillation is one of the predominant conventional phase-change methods of achieving desalination. It accounts for roughly 45% of the total world desalination capacity and 93% of all thermal methods.[2]

In Margarita de Savoya, Italy there is a 50–60 m3/day MSF plant with a salinity gradient solar pond providing its thermal energy and storage capacity. In El Paso, Texas there is a similar project in operation that produces 19 m3/day. In Kuwait a MSF facility has been built using parabolic trough collectors to provide the necessary solar thermal energy to produce 100 m3 of fresh water a day.[7] And in Northern China there is an experimental, automatic, unmanned operation that uses 80 m2 of vacuum tube solar collectors coupled with a 1 kW wind turbine (to drive several small pumps) to produce 0.8 m3/day.[29]

Production data shows that MSF solar distillation has an output capacity of 6–60 L/m2/day versus the 3-4 L/m2/day standard output of a solar still.[7] MSF experience very poor efficiency during start-up or low energy periods. In order to achieve the highest efficiency MSF requires carefully controlled pressure drops across each stage and a steady energy input. As a result, solar applications require some form of thermal energy storage to deal with cloud interference, varying solar patterns, night time operation, and seasonal changes in ambient air temperature. As thermal energy storage capacity increases a more continuous process can be achieved and production rates approach maximum efficiency.[30]

Freezing

Although it has only been used on demonstration projects, this indirect method based on crystallization of the saline water has the advantage of the low energy required. Since the latent heat of fusion of water is 6,01 kJ/mole and the latent heat of vaporization at 100 °C is 40,66 kJ/mole, it should be cheaper in terms of energy cost. Furthermore, the corrosion risk is lower too. There is although a disadvantage related with the difficulties of mechanically moving mixtures of ice and liquid. It has not been commercialized yet due to cost and difficulties with refrigeration systems.

The most studied way of using this process is the refrigeration freezing. A refrigeration cycle is used to cool the water stream to form ice, and after that those crystals are separated and melted to obtain fresh water. There are some recent examples of this solar powered processes: the unit constructed in Saudi Arabia by Chicago Bridge and Iron Inc. in the late 1980s, which was shut down for its inefficiency.

Nevertheless, there is a recent study for the saline groundwater [31] concluding that a plant capable of producing 1 million gal/day would produce water at a cost of $1.30/1000 gallons. Being this true, it would be a cost-competitive device with the reverse osmosis ones.

Problems with thermal systems

There are two inherent design problems facing any thermal solar desalination project. Firstly, the system's efficiency is governed by preferably high heat and mass transfer rates during evaporation and condensation. The surfaces have to be properly designed within the contradictory objectives of heat transfer efficiency, economy, and reliability.[1]

Secondly, the heat of condensation is valuable because it takes large amounts of solar energy to evaporate water and generate saturated, vapor-laden hot air. This energy is, by definition, transferred to the condenser's surface during condensation. With most forms of solar stills, this heat of condensation is ejected from the system as waste heat. The challenge still existing in the field today, is to achieve the optimum temperature difference between the solar-generated vapor and the seawater-cooled condenser, maximal reuse of the energy of condensation, and minimizing the asset investment.

Solutions for thermal systems

Efficient desalination systems use heat recovery to allow the same heat input to provide several times the water than a simple evaporative process such as solar stills.[1]

One solution to the barrier presented by the high level of solar energy required in solar desalination efforts is to reduce the pressure within the reservoir. This can be accomplished using a vacuum pump, and significantly decreases the temperature of heat energy required for desalination. For example, water at a pressure of 0.1 atmospheres boils at 50 °C (122 °F) rather than 100 °C (212 °F).[32]

Solar humidification–dehumidification
Main article: Solar humidification

The solar humidification–dehumidification (HDH) process (also called the multiple-effect humidification–dehumidification process, solar multistage condensation evaporation cycle (SMCEC) or multiple-effect humidification (MEH)[33]) is a technique that mimics the natural water cycle on a shorter time frame by evaporating and condensing water to separate it from other substances. The driving force in this process is thermal solar energy to produce water vapor which is later condensed in a separate chamber. In sophisticated systems, waste heat is minimized by collecting the heat from the condensing water vapor and pre-heating the incoming water source.[34] This system is effective for small- to mid- scale desalination systems in remote locations because of the relative inexpensiveness of solar thermal collectors.

Single-phase solar desalination

In indirect, or single phase, solar-powered desalination, two different technological systems are combined: a solar energy collection system (e.g. through the use of photovoltaic panels) and a proven desalination system such as reverse osmosis (RO), are combined. The main single-phase processes, or membrane processes, consist of Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Electrodialysis (ED). Single phase solar desalination is predominantly accomplished by the use of photovoltaic cells that produce electricity to drive pumps used for reverse osmosis desalination. Nowadays there are over 15,000 desalination plants around the world, of these plants almost 70% of them use RO method, which makes RO processes responsible for 44% of desalination production capacity internationally.[35] However, alternative experimental methods are being researched, which use solar thermal collection to provide mechanical energy to drive the reverse osmosis process.

Solar-powered reverse osmosis

In reverse osmosis desalination systems, seawater pressure is raised above the natural osmotic pressure, forcing pure water through membrane pores to the fresh water side. Reverse osmosis (RO) is the most common desalination process in terms of installed capacity due to its superior energy efficiency compared to thermal desalination systems, despite requiring extensive water pre-treatment. Furthermore, part of the consumed mechanical energy can be reclaimed from the concentrated brine effluent with an energy recovery device.[36]

Solar-powered RO desalination is common in demonstration plants due to the modularity and scalability of both photovoltaic (PV) and RO systems. A detailed economic analysis[37] and a thorough optimisation strategy[38] of PV powered RO desalination were carried out with favorable results reported. Economic and reliability considerations are the main challenges to improving PV powered RO desalination systems. However, the quickly dropping PV panel costs are making solar-powered desalination ever more feasible.

This type of systems (PV-RO) convert solar radiation into direct-current (DC) electricity, which will feed the RO unit. While the intermittent nature of sunlight and its variable intensity throughout the day makes PV efficiency prediction difficult and desalination during night time challenging, several solutions exist. For example, batteries, which provide the energy required for desalination in non-sunlight hours can be used to store solar energy in daytime. Apart from the use of conventional batteries, alternative methods for solar energy storage exist. For example, thermal energy storage systems solve this storage problem and ensure constant performance even during non-sunlight hours and cloudy days, improving overall efficiency.[39]

Nevertheless, it is valid to pointed out some pros and cons regarding the use of batteries in a PV-RO system. In one hand, as mentioned above, the use of batteries is a solution that targets the uniformity operation of the system, maintaining the desired set point along the variation of sunlight during the day, as a buffer. Studies have indicates that intermittent operations can increase biofouling.[40]

Still, the use of batteries has some drawbacks as the price. Batteries are expensive and they increase the investment amount and maintenance of a PV-RO plant, due to the periodic maintenance required by batteries. Also, when electrical energy from the PV is converted to chemical energy in the battery and send to the pumps of the RO system, energy is lost. Hence, the use of batteries could decrease the efficiency of the plant.[40]

Reported average cost of seawater desalination with RO is 0.56 USD/m3, while, using renewable energy sources, that cost could increase up to 16 USD/m3.[35] Although the costs for using renewable energy sources are greater, the perspectives of using them in desalination systems are increasing, due to the environmental concerns and future availability of fossil fuels. Furthermore, economic analysis of PV-RO small scale units shows that it could be a solution for remote areas supply of fresh water, competing with the conventional desalination methods.

Solar-powered Electrodialysis

Both Electrodialysis (ED) and Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) are based on the principle of selective ions transport through ion exchange membranes (IEMs) due either to the influence of concentration difference (RED) or electrical potential (ED).

In Electrodialysis (ED) an electrical force is applied to the electrodes; the cations travel toward the cathode and anions travel toward the anode. The exchange membranes only allow the passage of its permeable type (cation or anion), hence with this arrangement, diluted and concentrated salt solutions are placed in the space between the membranes (channels). The configuration of this stack could be either horizontally or vertically, and the feed water passes in parallel through all the cells, providing a continuous flow of permeate and brine. Although this is a well-known process Electrodialysis is not commercially suited for seawater desalination, it can be used only for brackish water (TDS < 1000 ppm) [35] and due to the complexity for modeling ion transport phenomena in the channels, the process perform could be affected considering the non-ideal behavior presented by the exchange membranes.[41]

The basic ED process could be modified and turn into RED, which operates in almost the same way of ED, except by the fact that the polarity of the electrodes changes periodically reversing the flow through the membranes. Due to that the deposition of colloidal substances is very difficult which makes this a self-cleaning process, almost eliminating the need for chemical pre-treatment, also making this type of treatment economically attractive process for brackish water.[42]

The use ED systems is not new, it has been used since 1954 and RED was developed in the '70s. Today these processes are used over 1100 plants worldwide and also PV-ED process. The main advantages for using PV technology in desalination plants is due to the possibility to build small-scale plants, which are suitable for remote areas and without fossil fuel availability, there are some interesting reported examples of PV-ED use, one of them is in Japan, on Oshima Island (Nagasaki), operating since 1986 with 390 PV panels producing 10 m3/day with a Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) about 400 ppm.[42]

See also

References
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