Turkish diaspora

The Turkish diaspora (Turkish: Türk diasporası or Türk gurbetçiler) refers to ethnic Turkish people who have migrated from, or are the descendants of migrants from, the Republic of Turkey or other modern nation-states that were once part of the former Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the Turkish diaspora is not only formed by people with roots from mainland Anatolia and Eastern Thrace (i.e. the modern Turkish borders); rather, it is also formed of Turkish communities which have also left traditional areas of Turkish settlements in the Balkans (such as Bulgaria, Greece, North Macedonia, Romania etc.), the island of Cyprus, the region of Meskhetia in Georgia, and the Arab world (such as Algeria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria).

Countries with significant Turkish population and descendants.

  Turkey

  + 1,000,000

  + 100,000

  + 10,000

  + 1,000

In particular, most mainland Turkish migration has been to Western and Northern Europe. Meanwhile, almost all the Turkish minorities in former Ottoman lands have a large diaspora in Turkey, many having migrated as muhacirs (refugees); furthermore, the Cretan Turks have migrated throughout the Levant; Cypriot Turks have a significant diaspora in the English-speaking countries (especially the UK and Australia); the Meskhetian Turks have a large diaspora in Central Asia; and Algerian Turks and Tunisian Turks have mostly settled in France. Since Bulgarian Turks and Romanian Turks gained EU citizenship in 2007, their diasporas in Western Europe significantly increased once restrictions on movement came to a halt in 2012.

Diasporas

Europe

As early as 1997 Professor Servet Bayram and Professor Barbara Seels said that there was 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans (i.e. excluding Cyprus and Turkey).[1] By 2010, Boris Kharkovsky from the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies said that there was up to 15 million Turks living in the European Union.[2] According to Dr Araks Pashayan 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium in 2012.[3] Furthermore, there are significant Turkish communities living in Austria, the UK, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein and the Scandinavian countries. Meanwhile, approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks live in the European regions of the Post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine).[4]

In addition to the modern Turkish diaspora in Europe, there are also traditional Turkish communities in post-Ottoman nation-states. For example, Turkish Cypriots and Turkish settlers living in North Cyprus number around 300,000 to 500,000. In addition, in Southeastern Europe there is over 1 million Turks living in the Balkan countries (i.e. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania and Serbia).[5] Since the 20th century, these ethnic Turkish communities have also migrated to Western Europe and have enlarged the Turkish diaspora significantly (e.g. Algerian Turks have mostly settled in France; Bulgarian Turks have migrated mostly to Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden; Turkish Cypriots have a large population in the UK; Macedonian Turks have migrated mostly to Sweden; Tunisian Turks have migrated mostly to France and Italy; and Western Thrace Turks have mostly migrated to Germany and the Netherlands). More recently, since the "European migrant crisis" (2014-19), Iraqi Turks, Kosovo Turks and Syrian Turks have also settled in areas where there are large Turkish diasporas.

Consequently, within the diaspora, ethnic Turkish people now form the largest minority group in Austria, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands.[6]

Germany

Turkish day in Berlin, Germany.

A popularized German-Turkish community flag.

The Turkish-Germans are the largest ethnic minority group in Germany and also the largest Turkish community in the Turkish diaspora.

The German census only collects data on country of birth, rather than ethnicity, consequently, official figures do not provide a true representation of the total population (i.e. including German-born descendants of full or partial Turkish origin). The majority of ethnic Turks living in Germany have either arrived from or originate from Turkey; however, there are also significant ethnic Turkish communities which have come from (or descend from) other post-Ottoman nation-states in the Balkans (especially from Bulgaria and Greece), as well as from the island of Cyprus, and Lebanon. More recently, since the European migrant crisis (2014-19), there has also been a significant increase in the number of ethnic Turks from Syria, Iraq and Kosovo who have come to Germany.

In 1997 the Chancellor of Germany, Helmut Kohl, said that there was 3 million Turks in Germany.[7] However, since the early 2000s, numerous academics have said that there is "at least" or "more than" 4 million people of Turkish origin living in Germany (forming approximately 5% of the country's population).[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] Numerous sources have also suggested significantly higher estimates. As early as 2005 Austrian scholar Dr. Tessa Szyszkowitz quoted a senior European official who said:

It is a little late to start the debate about being an immigrant country now, when already seven million Turks live in Germany.[17]

By 2013 Dr James Lacey and Professor Williamson Murray noted that the German chancellor, Angela Merkel, said that Germany's Leitkultur "needs to be accepted by Germany's seven million Turkish immigrants".[18]

As of 2020, numerous sources have said that there are 7 million, or more than 7 million, people of Turkish descent living in Germany, including Professor George K. Zestos and Rachel Cooke in their report published by the Levy Economics Institute,[19] Professor Graham E. Fuller's article in the Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft,[20] Professor James G. Lacey's article in the National Security Innovation Network.[21] and Louise Callaghan's article in The Times.[22]

France

The Eiffel Tower wearing the colours of the Turkish flag during the "Saison de la Turquie en France".

There is around one million people of Turkish origin living in France.[23][24][25][26][27]

The Turks living in France form one of the largest Turkish communities in Western Europe. Official data on the total number of French Turks is not available because the French census only records statistics on the country of birth rather than one's ethnic affiliation.

Although the majority of French Turks descend from the Republic of Turkey, there has also been significant Turkish migration from other post-Ottoman countries including ethnic Turkish communities which have come to France from North Africa (especially Algeria and Tunisia), the Balkans (e.g. from Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Romania), the island of Cyprus, and more recently from Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria.

In 2014 Professor Pierre Vermeren reported in L'Express that the Turkish population was around 800,000.[28] However, an earlier academic publication in 2010 by Dr Jean-Gustave Hentz and Dr Michel Hasselmann said that there was already 1 million Turks living in France.[23] Professor İzzet Er,[24] as well as the French-Armenian politician Garo Yalic (who is an advisor to Valerie Boyer),[25] also said that there was 1,000,000 Turks in France in 2011 and 2012 respectively. More recently, the Turkish-French population has been estimated to be more than one million according to French-published articles in Le Petit Journal (2019)[26] and Marianne (2020).[27]

The Netherlands

The Turkish Mevlana Mosque in Rotterdam was voted the most attractive building in the city in 2006.

Turkish and Dutch flags in the multi-ethnic neighbourhood Kruidenbuurt, Eindhoven.

The Turkish-Dutch community form the largest ethnic minority group in the Netherlands. The majority of Dutch Turks descend from the Republic of Turkey; however there has also been significant Turkish migration waves from other post-Ottoman countries including ethnic Turkish communities which have come to the Netherlands from the Balkans (e.g. especially from Bulgaria, Greece, and North Macedonia),[29] the island of Cyprus,[29] and more recently during the European migrant crisis from Syria, Iraq and Kosovo. In addition, there has been migration to the Netherlands from the Turkish diaspora; many Turkish-Belgians and Turkish-Germans have arrived in the country as Belgian and German citizens.[29]

The Dutch official census only collects data on country of birth, rather than ethnically; consequently, the total number of ethnic Turkish migrants (regardless of country of birth) nor the third, fourth or fifth generation of the Turkish-Dutch community have been collectively counted.[29] Assistant Professor Suzanne Aalberse, Professor Ad Backus and Professor Pieter Muysken have said that "over the years" the Dutch-Turkish community "must have numbered half a million".[30] However, there are significantly higher estimates. As early as 2003, the political scientist and international relations expert Dr Nathalie Tocci said that there was already "two million Turks in Holland".[31] Rita van Veen also reported in Trouw that there was 2 million Turks in the Netherlands in 2007.[32] More recently, in 2020, a report published in L1mburg Centraal estimated that there are more than 2 million Dutch-Turks.[33] Voetbal International also reported in 2020 that the Dutch football club Fortuna Sittard will be carrying out annual scouting activities to find "Turkish talent" among the approximately 2 million Turkish-Dutch community.[34]

In 2009 The Sophia Echo reported that Bulgarian Turks were now the fastest-growing group of immigrants in the Netherlands.[35]

The United Kingdom

In 2011 the Home Affairs Committee stated here was 500,000 British Turks made up of 300,000 Turkish Cypriots, 150,000 Turkish nationals (i.e. people from Turkey), and smaller groups of Bulgarian Turks and Romanian Turks.[36] Despite a lack of statistics on the collective number of Turks who have immigrated from their traditional homelands, it is known that Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish diaspora communities than the UK.[37]

Austria

The Turkish community, including descendants, form the largest ethnic minority in Austria. In 2011 a report by the Initiative Minderheiten said that there was 360,000 people of Turkish origin living in Austria.[38] This figure has also been echoed by the former Austrian Foreign Minister and current Chancellor of Austria Sebastian Kurz.[39] However, the former Austrian MEP, Andreas Mölzer, has claimed that there are 500,000 Turks in the country.[40]

Turkish day in Vienna, Austria (2009).

Belgium

A Turkish demonstration in Brussels, Belgium.

In 2012 Professor Raymond Taras said that the Belgian-Turkish community was over 200,000.[41] More recently, in 2019 Dr Altay Manço and Dr Ertugrul Taş said that there was 250,000 Belgian residents of Turkish origin.[42]

Sweden

In 2009 the Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs said that there was almost 100,000 people with a Turkish background living in Sweden.[43] More recently, in 2018 the Swedish Consul General, Therese Hyden, said that the population was now around 150,000.[44]

Switzerland

In 2017 there was over 120,000 Turks living in Switzerland. They mostly live in German-speaking regions, especially in the cantons of Zurich, Aargau and Basel. Figures on naturalization and migration from Turkey has been declining, however, the Swiss population with a Turkish migration background continues to grow.[45]

Denmark

The Turkish community form the largest ethnic minority in Denmark. In 2008, it was estimated that Danes of Turkish origin numbered 70,000.[46][47]

Italy

In 2020 there was 50,000 Turkish citizens living in Italy;[48] however, this figure does not include naturalized Italian citizens of Turkish origin or their descendants. In addition to the diaspora, some of the population in Moena has identified as Turkish since the 17th century.[49]

Norway

In 2013 there was roughly 16,500 Norwegians of Turkish descent living in Norway.[50]

Finland

In 2010 Professor Zeki Kütük said that there was approximately 10,000 people of Turkish origin living in Finland.[51]

Poland

In 2013 data from the Institute of Public Affairs showed that there was 5,000 Turks living in Poland.[52]

Liechtenstein

Liechtenstein does not record data on the ethnicity of its citizens; however, in 2009, the Turkish community was estimated to number approximately 1,000 out of a total population of 35,000.[53] Hence, estimates suggest that the Turks form around 3% of Liechtenstein's total population and that they are the fifth largest ethnic group in the country.[54]

United States

As of 2012, there is approximately 1 million Turkish Americans.[55]

In 1996 Professor John J. Grabowski estimated that there was 500,000 Turks living in the United States.[56] By 2009, Erdal Şafak said that the Turkish American community was approximately 850,000 to 900,000.[57] More recently, in 2012 the former United States Secretary of Commerce, John Bryson, confirmed at the Center for American Progress that the Turkish American community was now over 1,000,000:[55]

Here in the U.S., you can see our person-to-person relationships growing stronger each day. You can see it in the 13,000 Turkish students that are studying here in the U.S. You can see it in corporate leaders like Muhtar Kent, the CEO of Coca-Cola, and you can see it in more than one million Turkish-Americans who add to the rich culture and fabric of our country. – John Bryson (2012)[55][58]

There are, however, much higher estimates. Non-governmental Turkish organizations in the USA claim that there are at least 3,000,000 people of Turkish origin living in the United States, including Turkish Americans as well as new Turkish migrant workers, students and illegal migrants. Consequently, since the twenty-first century, the Turkish American population is fast approaching the significant number of Turks in Germany because most students, expats, etc. decide to live permanently in the United States.[57]

Canada

Turkish community in Victoria, Canada.

According to the 2016 Canadian census, 63,955 people voluntarily declared their ethnicity as "Turkish".[59] However, in 2018, the Canadian Ambassador Chris Cooter said that there was approximately 100,000 Turkish Canadians living in the country, as well as several thousand Turkish students:

We have a growing Turkish diaspora and they’re doing very well in Canada. We think it’s 100,000, largely in Toronto. We have several thousand Turkish students in Canada as well. We are trying to make sure that two-way relationship is growing. – Canadian Ambassador Chris Cooter (2018)[60]

The "Federation of Canadian Turkish Associations"[61] and the "Federation of Chinese Canadians in Markham" have also reported that there was over 100,000 Turkish Canadians living in the country.[62]

Australia

In 1994 a report by The Age estimated that the Turkish Australian community numbered 150,000.[63] By 2013 Louise Asher, who was a member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly, said that the Turkish Australian community in Melbourne alone had numbered 300,000.[64] More recently, the number of Turkish Australians who originate from Turkey reached 200,000 in 2017;[65] in addition, the Turkish Cypriot-Australian community was estimated to number 120,000 in 2016.[66]

New Zealand

In 2010 the Turkish-New Zealander population was estimated to number between 2,000 to 3,000;[67] in addition, the Turkish Cypriot-New Zealander population was 1,600 in 2016.[66]

Diaspora of Algerian Turks

Initially, the first wave of migration occurred in 1830 when many Turks were forced to leave the region once the French took control over Algeria; approximately 10,000 were shipped off to Turkey whilst many others migrated to other regions of the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt.[68] Furthermore, some Turkish/Kouloughli families also settled in Morocco (such as in Tangier and Tétouan).[69]

In regards to modern migration, there are many Algerian Turks who have emigrated to Europe and, hence, make up part of Algeria's diaspora. For example, there is a noticeable Algerian community of Turkish descent living in England. Many Algerians attend the Suleymaniye Mosque which is owned by the British-Turkish community.[70] There are also thousands of Algerian Turks living in France. Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, and Spain are also top receiving countries of Algerian citizens.[71]

Diaspora of Bulgarian Turks

Country	Population	Further information
Turkey	1,160,614 have emigrated between 1879-1992[72]	not including descendants
Sweden	30,000[73]
Netherlands	10,000-30,000[74]
Austria	1,000[75]

Diaspora of Cretan Turks

Country	Prof Andrew Rippin (1971 estimates)	Further information
Turkey	200,000[76]
Egypt	100,000[76]
Libya	100,000[76]
Lebanon  Palestine  Syria	50,000[76]

Diaspora of Cypriot Turks

Turkish Cypriots in Victoria, Australia

Turkish Cypriots protesting in London, the United Kingdom.

Turkish Cypriots in New York, United States

Country	Council of Europe (1993 estimate)[77]	TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2001 estimate)[78]	TÜBİTAK (2016 estimate)[66]	Other estimates	Further information
Turkey	300,000 (immigrants only)	500,000	500,000	300,000 (1968 estimate)[79] Including descendants, exceeding 600,000 (2018 estimate)[80]	see Turkish Cypriot muhacirs
United Kingdom	100,000 (immigrants only in England)	200,000	300,000	300,000[36][81]-400,000[82][83] (including descendants)	British Cypriots British Turks
Australia	30,000 (immigrants only)	40,000	120,000	120,000[84] (including descendants)	Turkish Australian
North America  United States  Canada	N/A 6,000 (immigrants only) 6,000 (immigrants only)	10,000 N/A N/A	N/A 5,000 1,800	N/A 5,000[84] 1,800[84]	Cypriot American Turkish American Turkish Canadians
Palestine	N/A	N/A	N/A	4,000 (early twentieth century Turkish Cypriot brides only)[85][86]
Germany	N/A	N/A	2,000	2,000[84]	Turks in Germany
New Zealand	N/A	N/A	1,600	1,600[84]	Turks in New Zealand
South Africa	N/A	N/A	"small community"	N/A[84]	Turks in South Africa
Other	N/A	5,000	N/A	N/A

Diaspora of Iraqi Turks

Most Iraqi Turkmen migrate to Turkey[87] followed by Germany,[87] Denmark,[87] and Sweden.[87] There are also Iraqi Turkmen communities living in Canada,[87] the United States,[87] Australia,[87] New Zealand, Greece,[88] the Netherlands,[89] and the United Kingdom.[90]

There are many established Iraqi Turkmen diaspora communities, such as the Canadian Iraqi Turkmen Culture Association, based in Canada.[91]

Diaspora of Lebanese Turks

Due to the numerous wars in Lebanon since the 1970s onwards, many Lebanese Turks have sought refuge in Turkey and Europe, particularly in Germany. Indeed, many Lebanese Turks were aware of the large German-Turkish population and saw this as an opportunity to find work once settling in Europe. In particular, the largest wave of Lebanese-Turkish migration occurred once the Israel-Lebanon war of 2006 began. During this period more than 20,000 Turks fled Lebanon, particularly from Beirut, and settled in Germany.[92]

Diaspora of Macedonian Turks

Diaspora of Meskhetian Turks

Meskhetian ("Ahiska") Turks outside the White House in Washington D.C., United States.

Country	Dr Aydıngün (2006 estimate)[93]	Al Jazeera (2014 estimate)[4]	Further information
Kazakhstan	150,000	180,000
Azerbaijan	90,000-110,000	87,000
Russia	70,000-90,000	95,000
Kyrgyzstan	50,000	42,000
Turkey	40,000	76,000
United States	15,000[94]	16,000
Uzbekistan	15,000	38,000
Ukraine	10,000	8,000
Northern Cyprus		180

Diaspora of Palestinian Turks

Syrian Turks waving Turkish and Syrian flags whilst shouting slogans: "No To Demographic Changes in Syria' and 'No To Genocide' during the December 2016 protests in London.

Both during and after the 1947–1949 Palestine war, some members of Palestine's Turkish minority fled the region (particularly the Jezreel Valley region and the Golan Heights) and settled in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan.[95] [96] In Jordan, there is approximately 55,000 Palestinian-Turkish refugees in Irbid[97] 5,000 near Amman[97] 5,000 in El-Sahne[97] 3,000 in El-Reyyan[97] 2,500 in El-Bakaa[97] 1,500 in El-Zerkaa[97] and 1,500 in Sahab[97]

Diaspora of Romanian Turks

Diaspora of Syrian Turks

Since the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, hundreds of thousands of Syrian Turkmen have been internally displaced and/or forced to leave the country, and most of them have sought refuge in neighbouring states and Western Europe. In particular, approximately 300,000 to 500,000[98] Syrian Turkmen have taken refuge in the Republic of Turkey. Moreover, there are between 125,000 and 150,000[99][100] Syrian Turkmen refugees in Lebanon, which means they outnumber the long-established Turkish minority in Lebanon.

In 2020 it was reported that 1 million Syrian Turkmen were living in Turkey and demanding that the Turkish government grant them Turkish citizenship.[101][102]

Diaspora of Western Thrace Turks

In 1990, it was estimated that around 300,000 to 400,000 Western Thrace Turks had migrated to Turkey since 1923.[103][104] Moreover, from the 1950s onwards, Turks of Western Thrace began to immigrate to Western Europe alongside other Greek citizens.[105] Whilst many Western Thrace Turks had intended to return to Greece after working for a number of years, a new Greek law was introduced which effectively forced the minority to remain in their host countries. Article 19 of the 1955 Greek Constitution essentially stripped the Western Thrace Turks living abroad (particularly those in Germany and Turkey) of their Greek citizenship.[106] According to Article 19 of the Greek Constitution

A person of non-Greek ethnic origin leaving Greece without the intention of returning may be declared as having lost Greek nationality.[106]

This law continued to effect Western Thrace Turks studying in Turkey and Germany in the late 1980s. A report published by the Human Rights Watch in 1990 confirmed that:

Under Article 19, ethnic Turks can be stripped of their citizenship by an administrative decree, without a hearing. According to the U.S. State Department's 1989 Country Report, under Greek law there can be no judicial review and there is no effective right of appeal.[106]

Despite many being stripped of their Greek citizenship since 1955, Western Thrace Turks continued to migrate to Western Europe the 1960s and 1970s because the Thracian tobacco industry was affected by a severe crisis and many tobacco growers lost their income. Between 1970 and 2010, approximately 40,000 Western Thrace Turks arrived in Western Europe, most of which settled in Germany.[107] In addition, between 2010 and 2018, a further 30,000 Western Thrace Turks left for Western Europe due to the Greek government-debt crisis.[107] Thus, in addition to the thousands who migrated in the 1950s and 1960s, 70,000 Western Thrace Turks have migrated to Western Europe between 1970 and 2018.[107] Around 80% of the Western Thracian Turks in Western Europe are living in Germany.[108] The remainder have emigrated to the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Austria and Italy; furthermore, outside of Europe, they have built communities in Australia, Canada and the United States.[109]

See also

• Turkish population
• Turks in Europe
• Turkish minorities in the former Ottoman Empire
• Turks in the Arab world

References

1. Bayram, Servet; Seels, Barbara (1997), "The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey", Educational Technology Research and Development, Springer, 45 (1): 112, doi:10.1007/BF02299617, S2CID 62176630, There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.
2. 52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership, Aysor, 2010, retrieved 7 November 2020, This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. “These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...
3. Pashayan, Araks (2012), "Integration of Muslims in Europe and the Gülen", in Weller, Paul; Ihsan, Yilmaz (eds.), European Muslims, Civility and Public Life: Perspectives On and From the Gülen Movement, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-4411-0207-2, There are around 10 million Euro-Turks living in the European Union countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.
4. Al Jazeera (2014). "Ahıska Türklerinin 70 yıllık sürgünü". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2016-07-05.
5. Dursun-Özkanca, Oya (2019), Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition, Cambridge University Press, p. 40, ISBN 978-1108488624, One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.
6. Al-Shahi, Ahmed; Lawless, Richard (2013), "Introduction", Middle East and North African Immigrants in Europe: Current Impact; Local and National Responses, Routledge, p. 13, ISBN 978-1136872808
7. Martin, Philip L. (2004), "Germany: Managing Migration in the Twenty-First Century", in Cornelius, Wayne A. (ed.), Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Stanford University Press, p. 246, ISBN 978-0804744904, Chancellor Helmut Kohl warned [in 1997]: "If we today give in to demands for dual citizenship, we would soon have four, five, or six million Turks in Germany instead of three million".
8. Kötter, I; Vonthein, R; Günaydin, I; Müller, C; Kanz, L; Zierhut, M; Stübiger, N (2003), "Behçet's Disease in Patients of German and Turkish Origin- A Comparative Study", in Zouboulis, Christos (ed.), Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Volume 528, Springer, p. 55, ISBN 978-0-306-47757-7, Today, more than 4 million people of Turkish origin are living in Germany.
9. Feltes, Thomas; Marquardt, Uwe; Schwarz, Stefan (2013), "Policing in Germany: Developments in the Last 20 Years", in Mesko, Gorazd; Fields, Charles B.; Lobnikar, Branko; Sotlar, Andrej (eds.), Handbook on Policing in Central and Eastern Europe, Springer, p. 93, ISBN 978-1461467205, Approximately four million people with Turkish roots are living in Germany at this time [2013].
10. Curtis, Michael (2013), Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East, Transaction Publishers, p. 69, ISBN 978-1412851411, In Germany today about three to four million Turks, about 5 percent of the total population, reside.
11. Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca (2014), "Introduction", in Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca; Hulme, Peter (eds.), Postcolonial Film: History, Empire, Resistance, Routledge, p. 13, ISBN 978-1134747276, By the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century there were around four million people of Turkish descent living in Germany...
12. Rizvi, Kishwar (2015), The Transnational Mosque: Architecture and Historical Memory in the Contemporary Middle East, University of North Carolina Press, p. 36, ISBN 978-1469621173, ...at least 4 million people of Turkish descent living in Germany.
13. Volkan, Vamık (2014), Enemies on the Couch: A Psychopolitical Journey Through War and Peace, Pitchstone Publishing, ISBN 978-1939578112, Today, for example, it is estimated that more than four million Turks and German citizens with part of full Turkish ancestry live in Germany alone.
14. Taras, Raymond (2015), ""Islamophobia never stands still": race, religion, and culture", in Nasar, Meer (ed.), Racialization and Religion: Race, Culture and Difference in the Study of Antisemitism and Islamophobia, Routledge, p. 46, ISBN 978-1317432449, ...about four million Turks are thought to live in Germany.
15. Fernández-Kelly, Patricia (2015), "Assimilation through Transnationalism: A Theoretical Synthesis", in Portes, Alejandro; Fernández-Kelly, Patricia (eds.), The State and the Grassroots: Immigrant Transnational Organizations in Four Continents, Berghahn Books, p. 305, ISBN 978-1782387350, Nearly fifty years later, close to four million Turks and their children continue to reside in the margins of German society
16. Audretsch, David B.; Lehmann, Erik E. (2016), The Seven Secrets of Germany: Economic Resilience in an Era of Global Turbulence, Oxford University Press, p. 130, ISBN 978-0190258696, By 2010 the number of Turkish descent living in Germany had increased to four million.
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18. Lacey, James; Murray, Williamson (2013), Moment of Battle: The Twenty Clashes That Changed the World, Random House Publishing Group, p. 79, ISBN 978-0345526991, The current German chancellor, Angela Merkel, recently made world news when she said Germany's Leitkultur (defining culture) needs to be accepted by Germany's seven million Turkish immigrants.
19. Zestos, George K.; Cooke, Rachel N. (2020), Challenges for the EU as Germany Approaches Recession (PDF), Levy Economics Institute, p. 22, Presently (2020) more than seven million Turks live in Germany.
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24. Fransa Diyanet İşleri Türk İslam Birliği. "2011 YILI DİTİB KADIN KOLLARI GENEL TOPLANTISI PARİS DİTİB'DE YAPILDI". Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 2012-02-15. İzzet ER Hocamız konuşmasında katılımcıları selamladıktan sonra, Fransa’da resmi verilere göre, 550 bin Türk nüfusunun bulunduğunu, bu sayının gayrı resmi olarak 1 milyon civarında tahmin edildiğini söyledi.
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