Danish language

Danish (/ˈdeɪnɪʃ/ (listen); dansk pronounced [ˈtænˀsk] (listen), dansk sprog [ˈtænˀsk ˈspʁɔwˀ])[1] is a North Germanic language spoken by about six million people, principally in Denmark, Greenland and in the region of Southern Schleswig in northern Germany, where it has minority language status.[4] Also, minor Danish-speaking communities are found in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, about 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their first language.

Danish
dansk
The first page of the Jutlandic Law originally from 1241 in Codex Holmiensis, copied in 1350. The first sentence is: "Mæth logh skal land byggas" Modern orthography: "Med lov skal land bygges" English translation: "With law shall a country be built"
Pronunciation	[ˈtænˀsk][1]
Native to	Denmark Schleswig-Holstein (Germany)
Region	Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein (Germany); Additionally in the Faroe Islands and Greenland
Ethnicity	Danes Schleswigers
Native speakers	6.0 million (2019)[2]
Language family	Indo-European Germanic North Germanic South Scandinavian[3] Danish
Early forms	Old Norse Old East Norse Early Old Danish Late Old Danish
Dialects	Bornholmian (Eastern Danish) Jutlandic South Jutlandic Insular Danish
Writing system	Latin script: Dano-Norwegian alphabet ∙ Danish orthography ∙ Danish Braille
Official status
Official language in	Kingdom of Denmark  •  Denmark  •  Faroe Islands  Nordic Council  European Union
Recognised minority language in	•  Greenland  Germany
Regulated by	Dansk Sprognævn (Danish Language Committee)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	da
ISO 639-2	dan
ISO 639-3	Either: dan – Insular Danish jut – Jutlandic
Glottolog	dani1285  Danish juti1236  Jutish
Linguasphere	5 2-AAA-bf & -ca to -cj
Regions where Danish is the national language   Regions where Danish is an official language but not a majority native language   Regions where Danish is a minority language

Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples who lived in Scandinavia during the Viking Era. Danish, together with Swedish, derives from the East Norse dialect group, while the Middle Norwegian language before the influence of Danish and Norwegian Bokmål are classified as West Norse along with Faroese and Icelandic. A more recent classification based on mutual intelligibility separates modern spoken Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish as "mainland Scandinavian", while Icelandic and Faroese are classified as "insular Scandinavian". Although writing is compatible, spoken Danish is distinctly different from Norwegian and Swedish and thus the degree of mutual intelligibility with either is variable between regions and speakers.

Until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of printing, a standard language was developed which was based on the educated Copenhagen dialect. It spread through use in the education system and administration, though German and Latin continued to be the most important written languages well into the 17th century. Following the loss of territory to Germany and Sweden, a nationalist movement adopted the language as a token of Danish identity, and the language experienced a strong surge in use and popularity, with major works of literature produced in the 18th and 19th centuries. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though regional variants of the standard language exist. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative.

Danish has a very large vowel inventory consisting of 27 phonemically distinctive vowels,[5] and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. Due to the many pronunciation differences that set apart Danish from its neighboring languages, particularly the vowels, difficult prosody and "weakly" pronounced consonants, it is sometimes considered to be a "difficult language to learn, acquire and understand",[6] and some evidence shows that children are slower to acquire the phonological distinctions of Danish compared to other languages.[7] The grammar is moderately inflective with strong (irregular) and weak (regular) conjugations and inflections. Nouns and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender. Like English, Danish only has remnants of a former case system, particularly in the pronouns. Unlike English, it has lost all person marking on verbs. Its syntax is V2 word order, with the finite verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence.

Classification

Danish and its historical relationships to other North Germanic languages within the Germanic branch of Indo-European. Another classification can be drawn based on mutual intellegibility.

Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch. Other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages. Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language; Danish and Swedish are also classified as East Scandinavian or East Nordic languages.[8][9]

Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where no sharp dividing lines are seen between the different vernacular languages.[8]

Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, and has been influenced by English since the turn of the 20th century.[8]

Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas: West Danish (Jutlandic), Insular Danish (including the standard variety), and East Danish (including Bornholmian and Scanian). Under the view that Scandinavian is a dialect continuum, East Danish can be considered intermediary between Danish and Swedish, while Scanian can be considered a Swedified East Danish dialect, and Bornholmsk is its closest relative.[8] Contemporary Scanian is fully mutually intelligible with Swedish and less so with Danish since it shares a standardized vocabulary and less distinct prounciations with the rest of Sweden than in the past. Blekinge and Halland, the two other provinces further away from Copenhagen that transitioned to Sweden in the 17th century speak dialects more similar to standard Swedish.

Mutual intelligibility

Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish. Proficient speakers of any of the three languages can often understand the others fairly well, though studies have shown that speakers of Norwegian generally understand both Danish and Swedish far better than Swedes or Danes understand each other. Both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each other's languages.[10] The reason Norwegian occupies a middle position in terms of intelligibility is because of its shared border with Sweden resulting in a similarity in pronunciation, combined with the long tradition of having Danish as a written language which has led to similarities in vocabulary.[11] Among younger Danes, Copenhageners are worse at understanding Swedish than Danes from the provinces. In general, younger Danes are not as good at understanding the neighboring languages as are Norwegian and Swedish youths.[10]

History

The Danish philologist Johannes Brøndum-Nielsen divided the history of Danish into a period from 800 AD to 1525 to be "Old Danish", which he subdivided into "Runic Danish" (800-1100), Early Middle Danish (1100–1350) and Late Middle Danish (1350–1525).[12]

Runic Danish

The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century:

  Old West Norse dialect

  Old East Norse dialect

  Old Gutnish dialect

  Old English

  Crimean Gothic

  Other Germanic languages with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility

Móðir Dyggva var Drótt, dóttir Danps konungs, sonar Rígs er fyrstr var konungr kallaðr á danska tungu.
"Dyggvi's mother was Drott, the daughter of king Danp, Ríg's son, who was the first to be called king in the Danish tongue."

Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson[13]

By the eighth century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse. This language was generally called the "Danish tongue" (Dǫnsk tunga), or "Norse language" (Norrœnt mál). Norse was written in the runic alphabet, first with the elder futhark and from the 9th century with the younger futhark.[14]

From the seventh century, the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, resulting in the appearance of two dialect areas, Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). Most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway.[15] A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong æi (Old West Norse ei) to the monophthong e, as in stæin to sten. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read stain and the later stin. Also, a change of au as in dauðr into ø as in døðr occurred. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from tauþr into tuþr. Moreover, the øy (Old West Norse ey) diphthong changed into ø, as well, as in the Old Norse word for "island". This monophthongization started in Jutland and spread eastward, having spread throughout Denmark and most of Sweden by 1100.[16]

Through Danish conquest, Old East Norse was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England. Many words derived from Norse, such as "gate" (gade) for street, still survive in Yorkshire, the East Midlands and East Anglia, and parts of eastern England colonized by Danish Vikings. The city of York was once the Viking settlement of Jorvik. Several other English words derive from Old East Norse, for example "knife" (kniv), "husband" (husbond), and "egg" (æg). The suffix "-by" for 'town' is common in place names in Yorkshire and the east Midlands, for example Selby, Whitby, Derby, and Grimsby. The word "dale" meaning valley is common in Yorkshire and Derbyshire placenames.[17]

Old and Middle dialects

Fangær man saar i hor seng mæth annæns mansz kunæ. oc kumær han burt liuænd....
"If one catches someone in the whore-bed with another man's wife and he comes away alive..."

Jutlandic Law, 1241 [18]

In the medieval period, Danish emerged as a separate language from Swedish. The main written language was Latin, and the few Danish-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet, although the runic alphabet seems to have lingered in popular usage in some areas. The main text types written in this period are laws, which were formulated in the vernacular language to be accessible also to those who were not Latinate. The Jutlandic Law and Scanian Law were written in vernacular Danish in the early 13th century. Beginning in 1350, Danish began to be used as a language of administration, and new types of literature began to be written in the language, such as royal letters and testaments. The orthography in this period was not standardized nor was the spoken language, and the regional laws demonstrate the dialectal differences between the regions in which they were written.[19]

Throughout this period, Danish was in contact with Low German, and many Low German loan words were introduced in this period.[20] With the Protestant Reformation in 1536, Danish also became the language of religion, which sparked a new interest in using Danish as a literary language. Also in this period, Danish began to take on the linguistic traits that differentiate it from Swedish and Norwegian, such as the stød, the voicing of many stop consonants, and the weakening of many final vowels to /e/.[21]

The first printed book in Danish dates from 1495, the Rimkrøniken (Rhyming Chronicle), a history book told in rhymed verses.[22] The first complete translation of the Bible in Danish, the Bible of Christian II translated by Christiern Pedersen, was published in 1550. Pedersen's orthographic choices set the de facto standard for subsequent writing in Danish.[23]

Early Modern

Herrer og Narre have frit Sprog.
"Lords and jesters have free speech."

Peder Syv, proverbs

Following the first Bible translation, the development of Danish as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Danish, first among them Rasmus Bartholin's 1657 Latin grammar De studio lingvæ danicæ; then Laurids Olufsen Kock's 1660 grammar of the Zealand dialect Introductio ad lingvam Danicam puta selandicam; and in 1685 the first Danish grammar written in Danish, Den Danske Sprog-Kunst ("The Art of the Danish Language") by Peder Syv. Major authors from this period are Thomas Kingo, poet and psalmist, and Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, whose novel Jammersminde (Remembered Woes) is considered a literary masterpiece by scholars. Orthography was still not standardized and the principles for doing so were vigorously discussed among Danish philologists. The grammar of Jens Pedersen Høysgaard was the first to give a detailed analysis of Danish phonology and prosody, including a description of the stød. In this period, scholars were also discussing whether it was best to "write as one speaks" or to "speak as one writes", including whether archaic grammatical forms that had fallen out of use in the vernacular, such as the plural form of verbs, should be conserved in writing (i.e. han er "he is" vs. de ere "they are").[24]

The East Danish provinces were lost to Sweden after the Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645) after which they were gradually Swedified; just as Norway was politically severed from Denmark, beginning also a gradual end of Danish influence on Norwegian (influence through the shared written standard language remained). With the introduction of absolutism in 1660, the Danish state was further integrated, and the language of the Danish chancellery, a Zealandic variety with German and French influence, became the de facto official standard language, especially in writing—this was the original so-called rigsdansk ("Danish of the Realm"). Also, beginning in the mid-18th century, the skarre-R, the uvular R sound ([ʁ]), began spreading through Denmark, likely through influence from Parisian French and German. It affected all of the areas where Danish had been influential, including all of Denmark, Southern Sweden, and coastal southern Norway.[25]

In the 18th century, Danish philology was advanced by Rasmus Rask, who pioneered the disciplines of comparative and historical linguistics, and wrote the first English-language grammar of Danish. Literary Danish continued to develop with the works of Ludvig Holberg, whose plays and historical and scientific works laid the foundation for the Danish literary canon. With the Danish colonization of Greenland by Hans Egede, Danish became the administrative and religious language there, while Iceland and the Faroe Islands had the status of Danish colonies with Danish as an official language until the mid-20th century.[24]

Standardized national language

Moders navn er vort Hjertesprog,
kun løs er al fremmed Tale.
Det alene i mund og bog,
kan vække et folk af dvale.
"Mother's name is our hearts' tongue,
only idle is all foreign speech
It alone, in mouth or in book,
can rouse a people from sleep."

N.F.S. Grundtvig, "Modersmaalet"

Following the loss of Schleswig to Germany, a sharp influx of German speakers moved into the area, eventually outnumbering the Danish speakers. The political loss of territory sparked a period of intense nationalism in Denmark, coinciding with the so-called "Golden Age" of Danish culture. Authors such as N.F.S. Grundtvig emphasized the role of language in creating national belonging. Some of the most cherished Danish-language authors of this period are existential philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and prolific fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen.[26] The influence of popular literary role models, together with increased requirements of education did much to strengthen the Danish language, and also started a period of homogenization, whereby the Copenhagen standard language gradually displaced the regional vernacular languages. After the Schleswig referendum in 1920, a number of Danes remained as a minority within German territories.[27] Throughout the 19th century, Danes emigrated, establishing small expatriate communities in the Americas, particularly in the US, Canada, and Argentina, where memory and some use of Danish remains today.

Language shift in the 19th century in southern Schleswig

After the occupation of Denmark by Germany in World War II, the 1948 orthography reform dropped the German-influenced rule of capitalizing nouns, and introduced the letter Å/å. Three 20th-century Danish authors have become Nobel Prize laureates in Literature: Karl Gjellerup and Henrik Pontoppidan (joint recipients in 1917) and Johannes V. Jensen (awarded 1944).

With the exclusive use of rigsdansk, the High Copenhagenian Standard, in national broadcasting, the traditional dialects came under increased pressure. In the 20th century, they have all but disappeared, and the standard language has extended throughout the country.[28] Minor regional pronunciation variation of the standard language, sometimes called regionssprog ("regional languages") remain, and are in some cases vital. Today, the major varieties of Standard Danish are High Copenhagenian, associated with elderly, well to-do, and well educated people of the capital, and low-Copenhagenian traditionally associated with the working class, but today adopted as the prestige variety of the younger generations.[29][30] Also, in the 21st century, the influence of immigration has had linguistic consequences, such as the emergence of a so-called multiethnolect in the urban areas, an immigrant Danish variety (also known as Perkerdansk), combining elements of different immigrant languages such as Arabic, Turkish, and Kurdish, as well as English and Danish.[29]

Geographic distribution

Danish is the national language of Denmark and one of two official languages of the Faroe Islands (alongside Faroese). Until 2009, it had also been one of two official languages of Greenland (alongside Greenlandic). Danish is widely spoken in Greenland now as lingua franca, and an unknown portion of the native Greenlandic population has Danish as their first language; a large percentage of the native Greenlandic population speaks Danish as a second language since its introduction into the education system as a compulsory language in 1928. Danish was an official language in Iceland until 1944, but is today still widely used and is a mandatory subject in school taught as a second foreign language after English. Iceland was a territory ruled by Denmark-Norway, one of whose official languages was Danish.[31]

Learn Danish banner in Flensburg, Germany, where it is an officially recognized regional language

In addition, a noticeable community of Danish speakers is in Southern Schleswig, the portion of Germany bordering Denmark, where it is an officially recognized regional language, just as German is north of the border. Furthermore, Danish is one of the official languages of the European Union and one of the working languages of the Nordic Council.[32] Under the Nordic Language Convention, Danish-speaking citizens of the Nordic countries have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any interpretation or translation costs.[32]

The more widespread of the two varieties of written Norwegian, Bokmål, is very close to Danish, because standard Danish was used as the de facto administrative language until 1814 and one of the official languages of Denmark-Norway. Bokmål is based on Danish, unlike the other variety of Norwegian, Nynorsk, which is based on the Norwegian dialects, with Old Norwegian as an important reference point.[8]

No law stipulates an official language for Denmark, making Danish the de facto language only. The Code of Civil Procedure does, however, lay down Danish as the language of the courts.[33] Since 1997, public authorities have been obliged to observe the official spelling by way of the Orthography Law. In the 21st century, discussions have been held regarding creating a language law that would make Danish the official language of Denmark.[34]

Dialects

Map of Danish dialects

A map showing the distribution of stød in Danish dialects: Dialects in the pink areas have stød, as in standard Danish, while those in the green ones have tones, as in Swedish and Norwegian. Dialects in the blue areas have (like Icelandic, German, and English) neither stød nor tones.

The distribution of one, two, and three grammatical genders in Danish dialects. In Zealand, the transition from three to two genders has happened fairly recently. West of the red line, the definite article goes before the word as in English or German; east of the line it takes the form of a suffix.

Standard Danish (rigsdansk) is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital, Copenhagen. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 25% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area of the capital, and most government agencies, institutions, and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, which has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm.[28][8]

Danish dialects can be divided into the traditional dialects, which differ from modern Standard Danish in both phonology and grammar, and the Danish accents or regional languages, which are local varieties of the Standard language distinguished mostly by pronunciation and local vocabulary colored by traditional dialects. Traditional dialects are now mostly extinct in Denmark, with only the oldest generations still speaking them.[35][28]

Danish traditional dialects are divided into three main dialect areas:

• Insular Danish (ømål), including dialects of the Danish islands of Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster, and Møn[36]
• Jutlandic (jysk), further divided in North, East, West, and South Jutlandic[37]
• Bornholmian (bornholmsk), the dialect of the island of Bornholm[38]

Jutlandic is further divided into Southern Jutlandic and Northern Jutlandic, with Northern Jutlandic subdivided into North Jutlandic and West Jutlandic. Insular Danish is divided into Zealand, Funen, Møn, and Lolland-Falster dialect areas―each with addition internal variation. The term "Eastern Danish"[39] is occasionally used for Bornholmian, but including the dialects of Scania (particularly in a historical context)―Jutlandic dialect, Insular Danish, and Bornholmian. Bornholmian is the only Eastern Danish dialect spoken in Denmark, since the other Eastern Danish dialects were spoken in areas ceded to Sweden and subsequently swedified.

Traditional dialects differ in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary from standard Danish. Phonologically, one of the most diagnostic differences is the presence or absence of stød.[40] Four main regional variants for the realization of stød are known: In Southeastern Jutlandic, Southernmost Funen, Southern Langeland, and Ærø, no stød is used, but instead a pitch accent. South of a line (Danish: Stødgrænsen "The Stød border") going through central South Jutland, crossing Southern Funen and central Langeland and north of Lolland-Falster, Møn, Southern Zealand and Bornholm neither stød nor pitch accent exists.[41] Most of Jutland and on Zealand use stød, and in Zealandic traditional dialects and regional language, stød occurs more often than in the standard language. In Zealand, the stød line divides Southern Zealand (without stød), an area which used to be directly under the Crown, from the rest of the Island that used to be the property of various noble estates.[42][43]

Grammatically, a dialectally significant feature is the number of grammatical genders. Standard Danish has two genders and the definite form of nouns is formed by the use of suffixes, while Western Jutlandic has only one gender and the definite form of nouns uses an article before the noun itself, in the same fashion as West Germanic languages. The Bornholmian dialect has maintained to this day many archaic features, such as a distinction between three grammatical genders.[38] Insular Danish traditional dialects also conserved three grammatical genders. By 1900, Zealand insular dialects had been reduced to two genders under influence from the standard language, but other Insular varieties, such as Funen dialect had not.[44] Besides using three genders, the old Insular or Funen dialect, could also use personal pronouns (like he and she) in certain cases, particularly referring to animals. A classic example in traditional Funen dialect is the sentence: "Katti, han får unger", literally The cat, he is having kittens, because cat is a masculine noun, thus is referred to as han (he), even if it is female cat.[45]

Phonology

The sound system of Danish is unusual, particularly in its large vowel inventory and in the unusual prosody. In informal or rapid speech, the language is prone to considerable reduction of unstressed syllables, creating many vowel-less syllables with syllabic consonants, as well as reduction of final consonants. Furthermore, the language's prosody does not include many clues about the sentence structure, unlike many other languages, making it relatively more difficult to segment the speech flow into its constituent elements.[6][46] These factors taken together make Danish pronunciation difficult to master for learners, and Danish children are indicated to take slightly longer in learning to segment speech in early childhood.[7]

Vowels

Although somewhat depending on analysis, most modern variants of Danish distinguish 12 long vowels, 13 short vowels, and two schwa vowels, /ə/ and /ɐ/ that only occur in unstressed syllables. This gives a total of 27 different vowel phonemes – a very large number among the world's languages.[47] At least 19 different diphthongs also occur, all with a short first vowel and the second segment being either [j], [w], or [ɐ̯].[48] The table below shows the approximate distribution of the vowels as given by Grønnum (1998) in Modern Standard Danish, with the symbols used in IPA/Danish. Questions of analysis may give a slightly different inventory, for example based on whether r-colored vowels are considered distinct phonemes. Basbøll (2005:50) gives 25 "full vowels", not counting the two unstressed schwa vowels.

	Front		Central	Back
	unrounded	rounded	unrounded	unrounded	rounded
Close	i iː	y yː			u uː
Near-close	e̝ e̝ː
Close-mid	e eː	ø øː			o oː
Mid			ə
Open-mid	ɛ ɛː	œ œː		ʌ	ɔ ɔː
Near-open	æ	œ̞ œ̞ː	ɐ
Open		ɶ		ɑ ɑː	ɒ ɒː

Consonants

The consonant inventory is comparatively simple. Basbøll (2005:73) distinguishes 16 non-syllabic consonant phonemes in Danish.

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular/ Pharyngeal[49]	Glottal
Nasal	m	n		ŋ
Stop	p⠀b	t⠀d		k⠀g
Fricative	f	s				h
Approximant	v	l	j		ʁ

Many of these phonemes have quite different allophones in onset and coda. Phonetically there is no voicing distinction among the stops, rather the distinction is one of aspiration and fortis vs. lenis.[48] /p t k/ are aspirated in onset realized as [pʰ, tsʰ, kʰ], but not in coda. The pronunciation of t, [tsʰ], is in between a simple aspirated [tʰ] and a fully affricated [tsʰ] as has happened in German with many words that now contain z. /v/ is pronounced as a [w] in syllable coda, so e.g. /grav/ ("grave") is pronounced [kʁɑw].

[ʋ, ð] often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as approximants. Danish [ð] differs from the similar sound in English and Icelandic, in that it is not a dental fricative but an alveolar approximant which sounds like and is frequently mistaken for an [l] by second language learners.[48]

The sound [ɕ] is found for example in the word /sjovˀ/ "fun" pronounced [ɕɒwˀ] and /tjalˀ/ "marijuana" pronounced [tɕælˀ]. Some analyses have posited it as a phoneme, but since it occurs only after /s/ or /t/ and [j] doesn't occur after these phonemes, it can be analyzed as an allophone of /j/, which is devoiced after voiceless alveolar frication. This makes it unnecessary to postulate a /ɕ/-phoneme in Danish.[50]

In onset /r/ is realized as a uvu-pharyngeal approximant, [ʁ], but in coda it is either realized as a non-syllabic low central vowel, [ɐ̯] or simply coalesces with the preceding vowel. The phenomenon is comparable to the r in German or in non-rhotic pronunciations of English. The Danish pronunciation of /r/ as a so-called skarre-r distinguishes the language from those varieties of Norwegian and Swedish that use trilled [r].

Prosody

Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called stød (lit. "thrust"). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice. Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon.[51] It has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as bønder ("peasants") with stød, versus bønner ("beans") without stød. The distribution of stød in the vocabulary is related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian pitch accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish.[52]

Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as billigst [ˈpilist] "cheapest" and bilist [piˈlist] "car driver".[53]

Grammar

Similarly to the case of English, modern Danish grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax. Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in Danish, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut or umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs tager/tog ("takes/took") and fod/fødder ("foot/feet")) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as elsker/elskede "love/loved", bil/biler "car/cars"). Vestiges of the Germanic case and gender system are found in the pronoun system. Typical for an Indo-European language, Danish follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Danish distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, numerals, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and ideophones.[54]

Nouns

Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and definiteness, and are classified into two grammatical genders. Only pronouns inflect for case, and the previous genitive case has become an enclitic. A distinctive feature of the Nordic languages, including Danish, is that the definite articles, which also mark noun gender, have developed into suffixes. Typical of Germanic language plurals are either irregular or "strong" stems inflected through umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem (e.g. fod/fødder "foot/feet", mand/mænd "man/men") or "weak" stems inflected through affixation (e.g. skib/skibe "ship/ships", kvinde/kvinder "woman/women").[55]

Gender

Standard Danish has two nominal genders: common and neuter; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category. Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast. While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the common gender, and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. The gender of a noun determines the form of adjectives that modify it, and the form of the definite suffixes. [56]

Definiteness

Danish regular plural patterns

Class 1			Class 2			Class 3
Sg.	Pl.	Pl. definite.	Sg.	Pl.	Pl. definite.	Sg.	Pl.	Pl. definite.
måned month	måneder months	månederne the months	dag day	dage days	dagene "the days"	år year	år years	årene the years
bil car	biler cars	bilerne the cars	hund dog	hunde dogs	hundene the dogs	fisk fish	fisk fish (pl.)	fiskene the fishes

Definiteness is marked by two mutually exclusive articles, a preposed demonstrative article which occurs with nouns that are modified by an adjective or a postposed enclitic.[57] Neuter nouns take the clitic -et, and common gender nouns take -en. Indefinite nouns take the articles en (common gender) or et (neuter). Hence, the common gender noun en mand "a man" (indefinite) has the definite form manden "the man", whereas the neuter noun et hus "a house" (indefinite) has the definite form, "the house" (definite) huset.[56] [58]

Indefinite:

• Jeg så et hus: "I saw a house"

Definite with enclitic article:

• Jeg så huset: "I saw the house"

Definite with preposed demonstrative article:

• Jeg så det store hus:[nb 1] "I saw the big house"

The plural definite ending is -(e)ne (e.g. drenge "boys > drengene "the boys" and piger "girls" > pigerne "the girls"), and nouns ending in -ere lose the last -e before adding the -ne suffix (e.g. danskere "Danes" > danskerne "the Danes"). When the noun is modified by an adjective, the definiteness is marked by the definite article den (common) or det (neuter) and the definite/plural form of the adjective: den store mand "the big man", det store hus "the big house".[59][58]

1. Note here that in Swedish and Norwegian the preposed and the enclitic article occur together (e.g. det store huset), whereas in Danish the enclitic article is replaced by the preposed demonstrative.

Number

Danish irregular plurals

Sg.	Pl.	Pl. definite
mand man	mænd men	mændene the men
ko cow	køer cows	køerne the cows
øje eye	øjne eyes	øjnene the eyes
konto account	konti accounts	kontiene the accounts

There are three different types of regular plurals: Class 1 forms the plural with the suffix -er (indefinite) and -erne (definite), Class 2 with the suffix -e (indefinite) and -ene (definite.), and Class 3 takes no suffix for the plural indefinite form and -ene for the plural definite.[60]

Most irregular nouns take an ablaut plural (with a change in the stem vowel), or combine ablaut stem-change with the suffix, and some have unique plural forms. Unique forms may be inherited (e.g. the plural of øje "eye", which is the old dual form øjne), or for loan words they may be borrowed from the donor language (e.g. the word konto "account" which is borrowed from Italian and uses the Italian masculine plural form konti "accounts").[61][62]

Possession

Possessive phrases are formed with the enclitic -s, for example min fars hus "my father's house" where the noun far carries the possessive enclitic.[63] This is however not an example of genitive case marking, because in the case of longer noun phrases the -s attaches to the last word in the phrase, which need not be the head-noun or even a noun at all. For example, the phrases kongen af Danmark's bolsjefabrik "the king of Denmark's candy factory", or det er pigen Uffe bor sammen meds datter "that is the daughter of the girl that Uffe lives with", where the enclitic attaches to a stranded preposition.[64][65]

Pronouns

Danish personal pronouns

Person	Subjective case	Objective case	Possessive case/adjective
1st p. sg.	jeg I	mig me	min/mit/mine my, mine
2nd p. sg.	du You	dig you	din/dit/dine your(s)
3rd p. sg.	han/hun /den/det he/she/it	ham/hende /den/det him/her/it	hans/hendes /dens/dets his/her(s)/its
1st p. pl.	vi we	os us	vores our(s)
2nd p. pl.	I you (pl.)	jer you (pl.)	jeres your(s) (pl.)
3rd p. pl	de they	dem them	deres their(s)
3rd p. ref.	N/A	sig him/her/itself, themself/selves	sin/sit/sine his/her(s)/its (own)

As does English, the Danish pronominal system retains a distinction between subjective and oblique case. The subjective case form of pronouns is used when pronouns occur as grammatical subject of a sentence, and oblique forms are used for all non-subjective occurrences including accusative, dative, predicative, comparative and other types of constructions. The third person singular pronouns also distinguish between and animate masculine (han "he"), animate feminine (hun "she") forms, as well as inanimate neuter (det "it") and inanimate common gender (den "it"). [66]

• Jeg sover: "I sleep"
• Du sover: "you sleep"
• Jeg kysser dig: "I kiss you"
• Du kysser mig: "you kiss me"

Possessive pronouns have independent and adjectival forms. The adjectival form is used immediately preceding the possessed noun (det er min hest "it is my horse"), whereas the independent possessive pronoun is used in place of the possessed noun (den er min "it is mine"). In the third person singular sin is used when the owner is also the subject of the sentence, whereas hans ("his"), hendes (her) and dens/dets "its" is used when the owner is different from the grammatical subject.[67][68]

• Han tog sin hat: He took his (own) hat
• Han tog hans hat: He took his hat (someone else's hat)

Nominal compounds

Like all Germanic languages, Danish forms compound nouns. These are represented in Danish orthography as one word, as in kvindehåndboldlandsholdet, "the female national handball team". In some cases, nouns are joined with an extra s, originally possessive in function, like landsmand (from land, "country", and mand, "man", meaning "compatriot"), but landmand (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with an extra e, like gæstebog (from gæst and bog, meaning "guest book").

Verbs

-

infinitive	Present	Past
at være to be	er is/are/am	var was/were
at se to see	ser sees	så saw
at vide to know	ved knows	vidste knew
at huske to remember	husker remembers	huskede remembered
at glemme to forget	glemmer forgets	glemte forgot

Danish verbs are morphologically simple, marking very few grammatical categories. They do not mark person or number of subject, although the marking of plural subjects was still used in writing as late as the 19th century. Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative.[69]

Tense, aspect, mood, and voice

Verbs can be divided into two main classes, the strong/irregular verbs and the regular/weak verbs.[57] The regular verbs are also divided into two classes, those that take the past suffix -te and those that take the suffix -ede.[70]

The infinitive always ends in a vowel, usually -e (pronounced [ə]), infinitive forms are preceded by the article at (pronounced [ɒ]).[70] The non-past or present tense takes the suffix -r, except for a few strong verbs that have irregular non-past forms. The past form does not necessarily mark past tense, but also counterfactuality or conditionality, and the non-past has many uses besides present tense time reference.[71]

The present participle ends in -ende (e.g. løbende "running"), and the past participle ends in -et (e.g. løbet "run"), -t (e.g. købt "bought"). Perfect tense is constructed with at have ("to have") and participial forms, like in English. But some transitive verbs can also form an imperfective perfect using at være ("to be") instead.

• Hun har gået. Flyet har fløjet: She has walked. The plane has flown
• Hun er gået. Flyet er fløjet: She has left. The plane has taken off
• Hun havde gået. Flyet havde fløjet: She had walked. The plane had flown
• Hun var gået. Flyet var fløjet: She had left. The plane had taken off

The passive form takes the suffix -s: avisen læses hver dag ("the newspaper is read every day"). Another passive construction uses the auxiliary verb at blive "to become": avisen bliver læst hver dag.[71][72]

The imperative mood is formed from the infinitive by removing the final schwa-vowel:

• løb!: "run!"

Syntax

Danish basic constituent order in simple sentences with both a subject and an object is Subject–Verb–Object.[73] However, Danish is also a V2 language, which means that the verb must always be the second constituent of the sentence. Following the Danish grammarian Paul Diderichsen[74] Danish grammar tends to be analyzed as consisting of slots or fields, and in which certain types of sentence material can be moved to the pre-verbal (or "grounding") field to achieve different pragmatic effects. Usually the sentence material occupying the preverbal slot has to be pragmatically marked, usually either new information or topics. There is no rule that subjects must occur in the preverbal slot, but since subject and topic often coincide, they often do. Therefore, whenever any sentence material that is not the subject occurs in the preverbal position the subject is demoted to postverbal position and the sentence order becomes VSO.[75]

• Peter (S) så (V) Jytte (O): "Peter saw Jytte"

but

• I går så (V) Peter (S) Jytte (O): "Yesterday, Peter saw Jytte"

When there is no pragmatically marked constituents in the sentence to take the preverbal slot (for example when all the information is new), the slot has to take a dummy subject "der".[76]

• der kom en pige ind ad døren: there came a girl in through the door, "A girl came in the door"

Main clauses

Haberland (1994, p. 336) describes the basic order of sentence constituents in main clauses as comprising the following 8 positions:

Og	ham	havde	Per	ikke	skænket	en tanke	i årevis
And	him	had	Per	not	given	a thought	for years
0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
"And him Per hadn't given a thought in years"

Position 0 is not part of the sentence and can only contain sentential connectors (such as conjunctions or interjections). Position 1 can contain any sentence constituent. Position 2 can only contain the main verb. Position 3 is the subject position, unless the subject is fronted to occur in position 1. Position 4 can only contain light adverbs and the negation. Position 5 is for non-finite verbs, such as auxiliaries. Position 6 is the position of direct and indirect objects, and position 7 is for heavy adverbial constituents.[75]

Questions with wh-words are formed differently from yes/no questions. In wh-questions the question word occupies the preverbal field, regardless of whether its grammatical role is subject or object or adverbial. In yes/no questions the preverbal field is empty, so that the sentence begins with the verb.

Wh-question:

• hvem så hun?': whom saw she, "whom did she see?"
• så hun ham?: saw she him?, "did she see him?"

Subordinate clauses

In subordinate clauses, the syntax differs from that of main clauses. In the subordinate clause structure the verb is preceded by the subject and any light adverbial material (e.g. negation).[77] Complement clauses begin with the particle at in the "connector field".

• Han sagde at han ikke ville gå: he said that he not would go, "He said that he did not want to go"

Relative clauses are marked by the relative articles som or der which occupy the preverbal slot:

• Jeg kender en mand som bor i Helsingør:[78] "I know a man who lives in Elsinore"

Vocabulary

Danish label reading militærpoliti, "military police", on police vehicle

About 2 000 of Danish non-compound words are derived from the Old Norse language, and ultimately from Proto Indo-European. Of these 2 000 words, 1 200 are nouns, 500 are verbs, 180 are adjectives and the rest belong to other word classes.[79] Danish has also absorbed a large number of loan words, most of which were borrowed from Middle Low German in the late medieval period. Out of the 500 most frequently used words in Danish, 100 are medieval loans from Middle Low German, as Low German is the other official language of Denmark-Norway.[80] In the 17th and 18th centuries, standard German and French superseded Low German influence and in the 20th century English became the main supplier of loan words, especially after World War II. Although many old Nordic words remain, some were replaced with borrowed synonyms, as can be seen with æde (to eat) which became less common when the Low German spise came into fashion. As well as loan words, new words are freely formed by compounding existing words. In standard texts of contemporary Danish, Middle Low German loans account for about 16‒17% of the vocabulary, Graeco-Latin-loans 4‒8%, French 2‒4% and English about 1%.[80]

Danish and English are both Germanic languages. Danish is a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse, and English is a West Germanic language descended from Old English. Old Norse exerted a strong influence on Old English in the early medieval period. To see their shared Germanic heritage, one merely has to note the many common words that are very similar in the two languages. For example, commonly used Danish nouns and prepositions such as have, over, under, for, give, flag, salt, and kat are easily recognizable in their written form to English speakers.[81] Similarly, some other words are almost identical to their Scots equivalents, e.g., kirke (Scots kirk, i.e., 'church') or barn (Scots bairn, i.e. 'child'). In addition, the word by, meaning "village" or "town", occurs in many English place-names, such as Whitby and Selby, as remnants of the Viking occupation. During the latter period, English adopted "are", the third person plural form of the verb "to be", as well as the corresponding personal pronoun form "they" from contemporary Old Norse.

Numerals

In the word forms of numbers above 20, the units are stated before the tens, so 21 is rendered enogtyve, literally "one and twenty".

The numeral halvanden means 1½ (literally "half second", implying "one plus half of the second one"). The numerals halvtredje (2½), halvfjerde (3½) and halvfemte (4½) are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below. Similarly, the temporal designation (klokken) halv tre, literally "half three (o'clock)", is half past two.

One peculiar feature of the Danish language is the fact that numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 are (as are the French numerals from 80 through 99) based on a vigesimal system, meaning that the score (20) is used as a base unit in counting. Tres (short for tre-sinds-tyve, "three times twenty") means 60, while 50 is halvtreds (short for halvtredje-sinds-tyve, "half third times twenty", implying two score plus half of the third score). The ending sindstyve meaning "times twenty" is no longer included in cardinal numbers, but may still be used in ordinal numbers. Thus, in modern Danish fifty-two is usually rendered as tooghalvtreds from the now obsolete tooghalvtredsindstyve, whereas 52nd is either tooghalvtredsende or tooghalvtredsindstyvende. Twenty is tyve (derived from old Danish tiughu, a haplology of tuttiughu, meaning 'two tens'[82]), while thirty is tredive (Old Danish þrjatiughu, "three tens"), and forty is fyrre (Old Danish fyritiughu, "four tens",[83] still used today as the archaism fyrretyve).[84] Thus, the suffix -tyve should be understood as a plural of ti (10), though to modern Danes tyve means 20, making it hard to explain why fyrretyve is 40 (four tens) and not 80 (four times twenty).

Cardinal numeral	Danish	Literal translation	Ordinal numeral	Danish	Literal translation
1	én / ét	one	1st	første	first
12	tolv	twelve	12th	tolvte	twelfth
23	treogtyve	three and twenty	23rd	treogtyvende	three and 20th
34	fireogtredive	four and thirty	34th	fireogtred(i)vte	four and 30th
45	femogfyrre(tyve)	five and forty (four tens)	45th	femogfyrretyvende	five and four tens-th
56	seksoghalvtreds(indstyve)	six and [two score plus] half [of the] third (score)	56th	seksoghalvtredsindstyvende	six and [two score plus] half [of the] third score-th
67	syvogtres(indstyve)	seven and three (score)	67th	syvogtresindstyvende	seven and three score-th
78	otteoghalvfjerds(indstyve)	eight and [three score plus] half [of the] fourth (score)	78th	otteoghalvfjerdsindstyvende	eight and [three score plus] half [of the] fourth score-th
89	niogfirs(indstyve)	nine and four (score)	89th	niogfirsindstyvende	nine and four score-th
90	halvfems(indstyve)	[four score plus] half [of the] fifth (score)	90th	halvfemsindstyvende	[four score plus] half [of the] fifth score-th

For large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that the short-scale billion (1,000,000,000) is called milliard, and the short-scale trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is billion.

Writing system and alphabet

Danish keyboard with keys for Æ, Ø, and Å.

The oldest preserved examples of written Danish (from the Iron and Viking Ages) are in the Runic alphabet.[85] The introduction of Christianity also brought the Latin script to Denmark, and at the end of the High Middle Ages Runes had more or less been replaced by Latin letters.

Danish orthography is conservative, using most of the conventions established in the 16th century. The spoken language however has changed a lot since then, creating a gap between the spoken and written languages.[86]

The modern Danish alphabet is similar to the English one, with three additional letters: æ, ø, and å, which come at the end of the alphabet, in that order. The letters c, q, w, x and z are only used in loan words. A spelling reform in 1948 introduced the letter å, already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the digraph aa.[85] The old usage continues to occur in some personal and geographical names; for example, the name of the city of Aalborg is spelled with Aa following a decision by the City Council in the 1970s and Aarhus decided to go back to Aa in 2011. When representing the å sound, aa is treated like å in alphabetical sorting, though it appears to be two letters. When the letters are not available due to technical limitations, they are often replaced by ae (Æ, æ), oe or o (Ø, ø), and aa (Å, å), respectively.

The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as the past tense vilde (would), kunde (could) and skulde (should), to their current forms of ville, kunne and skulle (making them identical to the infinitives in writing, as they are in speech). Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs slightly, particularly with the phonetic spelling of loanwords;[87] for example the spelling of station and garage in Danish remains identical to other languages, whereas in Norwegian, they are transliterated as stasjon and garasje.

See also

Realm languages:

• Faroese
• Greenlandic

Nordic languages:

• Icelandic
• Norwegian
• Swedish

Notes and references

1. "dansk — Den Danske Ordbog". ordnet.dk.
2. Insular Danish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
   Jutlandic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
3. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Danish language". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
4. The Federal Ministry of the Interior of Germany and Minorities in Germany Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
5. Haberland 1994, p. 318.
6. Grønnum 2008a. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrønnum2008a (help)
7. Trecca 2015.
8. Torp 2006.
9. Rischel 2012, pp. 809-10.
10. Åkesson 2005.
11. Torp 2006, pp. 70-72.
12. Howe 1996.
13. "Ynglinga saga – heimskringla.no". www.heimskringla.no.
14. Faarlund 1994, p. 38-41.
15. Faarlund 1994, p. 39.
16. Faarlund 1994, p. 41.
17. "Viking place names and language in England". Viking.no. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
18. Pedersen 1996, p. 220.
19. Pedersen 1996, pp. 219–21.
20. Pedersen 1996, pp. 221–224.
21. Torp 2006, pp. 57-58.
22. "Bog Museum (Book Museum)". Royal Danish Library. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014.
23. Pedersen 1996, p. 225.
24. Pedersen 1996.
25. Torp 2006, p. 52.
26. Rischel 2012, p. 828.
27. Rischel 2012, p. 831.
28. Pedersen 2003.
29. Kristiansen & Jørgensen 2003.
30. Quist, P. (2006). lavkøbenhavnsk. , at dialekt.ku.dk
31. Jacobsen 2003.
32. "Nordic language co-operation". Nordic Council. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
33. Rischel 2012, pp. 822-23.
34. Heltoft & Preisler 2007.
35. Kristiansen 1998.
36. "Ømål". Copenhagen University, Center for Dialect Research. 24 April 2015.
37. Nielsen 1959.
38. Prince 1924.
39. "danske dialekter | Gyldendal – Den Store Danske" (in Danish). Denstoredanske.dk. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
40. Sørensen 2011.
41. "Stød". University of Copenhagen, Center for Dialect Studies. 22 April 2015.
42. Ejskjær 1990.
43. Kroman 1980.
44. Arboe 2008.
45. "Navneordenes køn". Copenhagen University, Center for Dialect Research. 22 April 2015.
46. Grønnum 2008b. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrønnum2008b (help)
47. Haberland 1994, p. 319.
48. Haberland 1994, p. 320.
49. Basbøll 2005, p. 130.
50. Grønnum (2005:305–306)
51. Fischer-Jørgensen 1989.
52. Basbøll 2005, pp. 83-86.
53. Rischel 2012, p. 811.
54. Becker-Christensen 2010, p. 17.
55. Haberland 1994, pp. 323-331.
56. Haberland 1994, p. 323-324.
57. Rischel 2012, p. 813.
58. Lundskaer-Nielsen & Holmes 2015, p. 61-68.
59. Haberland 1994, p. 330.
60. Haberland 1994, p. 325-326.
61. Haberland 1994, p. 326.
62. Lundskaer-Nielsen & Holmes 2015, p. 35-40.
63. Herslund 2001.
64. Haberland 1994, p. 325.
65. Lundskaer-Nielsen & Holmes 2015, p. 53-60.
66. Haberland 1994, p. 326-328.
67. Allan, Lundskaer-Nielsen & Holmes 2005, p. 63.
68. Bredsdorff 1958, pp. 83-85.
69. Haberland 1994, p. 331.
70. Haberland 1994, p. 332.
71. Haberland 1994, p. 333.
72. Rischel 2012, p. 814.
73. Becker-Christensen 2010, p. 24.
74. Diderichsen 1974.
75. Haberland 1994, p. 336.
76. Haberland 1994, p. 344.
77. Jensen 2011.
78. Haberland 1994, p. 345.
79. Haberland 1994, pp. 346-347.
80. Jervelund, Anita Ågerup (2008). "Antal arveord og låneord". Dansk Sprognævns svarbase.
81. Bredsdorff 1958, pp. 6-10.
82. "tyve,4 — ODS". ordnet.dk.
83. (in Danish) Dansk sprognævn – De danske tal halvtreds, tres, halvfjerds, firs og halvfems Archived 25 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine(subscription required)
84. Haberland 1994, p. 348.
85. Rischel 2012, p. 815.
86. Rischel 2012, p. 820.
87. Waddingham, Anne. Ritter, R. M. (Robert M.). Oxford guide to style. New Hart's rules : the Oxford style guide. pp. 243–244. ISBN 9780191649134. OCLC 883571244.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Bibliography

• Åkesson, K. L. (2005). Håller språket ihop Norden?: en forskningsrapport om ungdomars förståelse av danska, svenska och norska. Nordic Council of Ministers.
• Allan, Robin; Lundskaer-Nielsen, Tom; Holmes, Philip (2005). Danish: An essential grammar. Routledge.
• Arboe, T (2008). "Pronominal repræsentation i danske dialekter" (PDF). 12. Møde om Udforskningen af Dansk Sprog. pp. 29–38. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2015.
• Basbøll, Hans (2005). The Phonology of Danish. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824268-0.
• Becker-Christensen, Christian (2010). Dansk syntaks. Samfundslitteratur.
• Bleses, D.; Vach, W.; Slott, M.; Wehberg, S.; Thomsen, P.; Madsen, T. O.; Basbøll, H. (2008). "Early vocabulary development in Danish and other languages: A CDI-based comparison". Journal of Child Language. 35 (3): 619–650. doi:10.1017/s0305000908008714. PMID 18588717.
• Bredsdorff, Elias (1958). Danish: an elementary grammar and reader. Cambridge University Press.
• Diderichsen, Paul (1974). Elementær dansk grammatik (3rd ed.). København: Gyldendal.
• Ejskjær, I. (1990). "Stød and pitch accents in the Danish dialects". Acta Linguistica Hafniensia. 22 (1): 49–75. doi:10.1080/03740463.1990.10411522.
• Faarlund, Jan Terje (1994). "3. Old and Middle Scandinavian". In König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.). The Germanic Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. Routledge. pp. 39–71. ISBN 978-0-415-28079-2. JSTOR 4176538.
• Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli (1989). "Phonetic analysis of the stød in standard Danish". Phonetica. 46 (1–3): 1–59. doi:10.1159/000261828. PMID 2608724.
• Gregersen, Frans; Holmen, Anne; Kristiansen, Tore; Møller, Erik; Pedersen, Inge Lise; Steensig, Jakob; Ulbæk, lb, eds. (1996). Dansk Sproglære [Danish Language studies] (in Danish). Dansklærerforeningen.
• Grønnum, N. (2008). "Hvad er det særlige ved dansk som gør det svært at forstå og at udtale for andre?: Anden del: prosodi" [What is the peculiarity of Danish that makes it difficult for others to understand and pronounce? Second part: Prosody]. Mål og Mæle (in Danish). 31 (2): 19–23.
• Grønnum, N. (2008). "Hvad er det særlige ved dansk som gør det svært at forstå og at udtale for andre?: Første del: enkeltlydene" [What is the peculiarity of Danish that makes it difficult for others to understand and pronounce? First part: Segmentary sounds]. Mål og Mæle. 31 (1): 15–20.
• Grønnum, N. (1998). "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 28 (1 & 2): 99–105. doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290.
• Grønnum, Nina (2005). Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk, 3rd edition [Phonetics and Phonology, general and Danish] (in Danish). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. ISBN 978-87-500-3865-8.
• Haberland, Hartmut (1994). "10. Danish". In König, Ekkehard; van der Auwera, Johan (eds.). The Germanic Languages. Routledge Language Family Descriptions. Routledge. pp. 313–349. ISBN 978-0-415-28079-2. JSTOR 4176538.
• Hansen, Aa. (1943). Stødet i dansk [The Stød in Danish]. De Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab Historisk-Filologiske Meddelelser (in Danish). XXIX. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
• Heltoft, Lars; Preisler, Bent (2007). "Sigtet med en sproglov". Sprogforum (4).
• Herslund, Michael (2001). "The Danish-s genitive: From affix to clitic". Acta Linguistica Hafniensia. 33 (1): 7–18. doi:10.1080/03740463.2001.10412193.
• Howe, Stephen (1996). "15. Old/Middle Danish". The Personal Pronouns in the Germanic Languages: A Study of Personal Pronoun Morphology and Change in the Germanic Languages from the First Records to the Present Day. Walter de Gruyter.
• Jensen, T. J. (2011). "Ordstilling i ledsætninger i moderne dansk grammatik". Ny Forskning i Grammatik. 18: 123–150.
• Jacobsen, Birgitte (2003). "Colonial Danish". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2003 (159): 153–164. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2003.004.
• Jespersen, O. (1906). Modersmålets fonetik [The phonetics of the Mothertongue] (in Danish). Schuboth.
• Kristiansen, Tore (1998). "The role of standard ideology in the disappearance of the traditional Danish dialects". Folia Linguistica. 32 (1–2): 115–130. doi:10.1515/flin.1998.32.1-2.115.
• Kristiansen, T.; Jørgensen, J. N. (2003). "The sociolinguistics of Danish". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2003 (159): 1. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2003.006.
• Kroman, E (1980). "Debat: Stød-og accentområder og deres oprindelse" [Stød and accent areas and their origins]. Fortid og Nutid, 1. (in Danish).
• Lundskaer-Nielsen, Tom; Holmes, Philip (2015). Danish: A comprehensive grammar (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• Nielsen, Niels Åge (1959). De jyske Dialekter. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.
• Pedersen, Inge Lise (1996). "Sprogsamfundets Historie". In Gregersen, Frans; Holmen, Anne; Kristiansen, Tore; Møller, Erik; Pedersen, Inge Lise; Steensig, Jakob; Ulbæk, lb (eds.). Dansk Sproglære. Dansklærerforeningen.
• Pedersen, I. L. (2003). "Traditional dialects of Danish and the de-dialectalization 1900–2000". The Sociolinguistics of Danish. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. pp. 159–9.
• Prince, John Dyneley (1924). "The Danish Dialect of Bornholm". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 63 (2): 190–207.
• Rischel, J. (2012). "Danish". Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire. 90 (3): 809–832. doi:10.3406/rbph.2012.8263.
• Sørensen, V. (2011). Lyd og prosodi i de klassiske danske dialekter [Sound and prosody in the classical Danish dialects] (PDF) (in Danish). Peter Skautrup Centret. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2015.
• Torp, Arne (2006). "Nordiske sprog i fortid og nutid. Sproglighed og sprogforskelle, sprogfamilier og sprogslægtskab" [Nordic languages in past and present. Language and language diversity, language families and linguistic relatedness]. Nordens Sprog med rødder og fødder [The languages of the Nordic countries with roots and feet] (PDF) (in Danish). Nordens Sprogråd.
• Trecca, Fabio (2015). "When too many vowels impede language processing: The case of Danish". Department of Language and Communication.

External links

• "Sproget.dk" (a website where you can find guidance, information and answers to questions about the Danish language and language matters in Denmark (in Danish))