Japanese space program

The Japanese space program (Japanese: 日本の宇宙開発) originated in the mid-1950s as a research group led by Hideo Itokawa at the University of Tokyo. The size of the rockets produced gradually increased from under 30 cm (12 in) at the start of the project, to over 15 m (49 ft) by the mid-1960s. The aim of the original research project was to launch a man-made satellite.

Japanese space program
Launch of the Japanese rocket H-IIA
First flight12 April 1955 (Pencil Rocket)
Successes60
Failures2
Partial failures1

By the 1960s, two organizations, the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) and the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA), were developing their own rockets. After experiencing numerous failures in the 1990s and 2000s, ISAS and NASDA merged — along with the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL) — to form the unified Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) in 2003.

History
Pencil rocket

After World War II, many aeronautical engineers lost their jobs as aircraft development was banned under the US Occupation of Japan. This changed following the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951, which once again allowed the development of aviation technology. The seven-year stagnation of Japan's aerospace industry had seriously harmed Japanese technical abilities.[1][2] To address this, Professor Hideo Itokawa of Tokyo University established an aviation research group at the Institute of Industrial Science at the University. That group succeeded in horizontally launching the Pencil Rocket on 12 April 1955 in Kokubunji, Tokyo. The rocket was 23 cm (9.1 in) long and had a diameter of 1.8 cm (0.71 in).[3][4]

The Pencil Rocket was the first experiment of its kind in Japan. Initially, the focus was on the development of rocket-powered aircraft, not space exploration. However, following Japan's participation in the International Geophysical Year, the focus of the rocket project shifted towards space engineering.[5]

Early development
Rocket birthplace monument

Iterations of the Pencil Rocket eventually increased in size to such a degree that experimentation within Kokubunji was deemed too dangerous. Therefore, the launch site was moved to Michikawa beach in Akita Prefecture.[6] Following the Pencil Rocket, the larger Baby Rocket was developed, which reached an altitude of 6 km (3.7 mi). After the Baby Rocket, two further rocket projects were carried out: a rockoon-type rocket launched from a balloon and a ground-launched rocket. The development of a rockoon turned out to be too difficult, and that experiment was eventually halted.[1][7] Among several versions of ground-launched rocket prototypes, the Kappa rocket was one of the most successful, gradually reaching higher altitudes. Due to inadequate funding, the rockets were handmade and the tracking radar was operated manually. Production was reliant on trial and error.

In 1958, the Kappa 6 rocket reached an altitude of 40 km (25 mi) and the collected data allowed Japan to participate in the International Geophysical Year. In 1960, the Kappa 8 rocket exceeded an altitude of 200 km (120 mi). The development of larger rockets necessitated a launch site with a large downrange. The old site in Akita Prefecture, which bordered the narrow Sea of Japan, was deemed insufficient for this purpose and a new launch site on the Pacific coast was created, this time at Uchinoura in Kagoshima Prefecture.

Launch of Ohsumi
First Japanese satellite "Ohsumi"

In the 1960s, Japanese space research and development was primarily focused on satellite delivery systems. A tentative plan was hatched to develop successors to the Kappa rockets, to be called Lambda rockets, for satellite delivery. The Science and Technology Agency subsequently focused its studies of Kappa launches on gathering technical information that would allow the new rockets to achieve higher altitudes.

In 1963, the government began a gradual increase in spending on space development. That year, the Science and Technology Agency restructured the National Aeronautical Laboratory (NAL) into the National Aerospace Laboratory. The new NAL was to be the center for research on space technology. However, it soon became clear that the NAL had insufficient resources to develop both aeronautical and space technology simultaneously. As a result, in 1964, the Science and Technology Agency was split, with NAL to work only on aviation technology, and a newly created Space Development Group to handle space technology.[1]

In 1964, at the urging of Hideo Itokawa, the University of Tokyo established the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science.[8] Although development on the Lambda rockets proceeded slowly, there were incremental improvements over the next couple of years; such as the new capability to reach an altitude of 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi), getting closer to that required for the launch of a satellite. At this time, however, political issues delayed development. There was, for instance, a controversy involving rocket guidance technologies, which some considered a military, not civilian, matter. Further aggravation was caused by the continued failure of the Lambda initiative, which lost four rockets in orbit.[1] The failure was reportedly caused by a shock (from the sudden combustion of residual fuel) resulting in parts colliding.

The first successful Japanese satellite launch occurred on 11 February 1970 with the launch of the Ohsumi by an unguided L-4S rocket No. 5.[9] The launch of Ohsumi was an important demonstration of technological cooperation with the United States, particularly in the development of high efficiency batteries that did not lose power at high temperatures.[10]

Successful development
Model of the indigenous four stage solid-propellant Q rocket[11]
Drawing of the partially indigenous N-I (rocket), based on Thor-Delta with MB-3 first stage engine[11]

After the Space Development Group merged with ISAS and National Space Development Agency into a single organization, space development gathered pace. Before the merger, each of the agencies were developing their own rockets independently. NASDA, for example, was focused on commercial applications rather than the improvement of liquid fuel rocket technology.[12]

Sakigake Satellite

After the agency unification, Japan started to develop more precise rockets in the 1970s. Although the first M-4S rocket failed, the next versions of it succeeded in orbit, with three satellite aircraft eventually becoming the foundation of the Mu rocket family. Afterwards, the Mu rockets were changed from four stages to three stages to simplify the system, and enhancements were made to M-3C. All stages were able to work with the M-3S rockets, and this technology resulted in a string of successful satellite launches into orbit, reaching higher altitudes each time.

Engineering Test Satellite Tansei and many other scientific satellites were launched by these rockets. Atmospheric observation satellites such as Kyokko and Ohzora and X-ray astronomy satellites such as Hakucho and Hinotori were also active at this time. ISAS's development of the rocket M-3SII rocket reached its completion. The rocket was the first solid-propellant rocket of its kind, and left Earth's gravity carrying the Halley Armada satellites Sakigake and Suisei. M-3SII established the technology for the satellites that were being launched one after another.

The M-V rocket, a larger solid-propellant rocket, made an appearance in 1997. ISAS reported to the government that it would not be technically possible to increase the diameter of the rocket to more than 1.4m in the next 10 years. This was because NASDA had decided on this size and the National Assembly had imposed further restrictions on top of it, making it difficult to increase the size.[13]

NASDA initially planned to develop its own liquid fuel rocket. However, because of the pressing need for practical and commercial rockets, the Japan-U.S. space agreement was signed and technology from the United States was introduced. Utilizing the American Delta rocket's first stage liquid fuel engine, Japan began the plan of installing the LE-3 during its second stage of development with liquid rockets. With that, the N-I Rocket had been developed. However, the liquid rocket's ability to be launched into orbit was low, and the ability to create satellites was not as strong as the United States's. Because of that, technology was transferred from the United States in 1977 and the geostationary meteorological satellite Himawari 1 was launched using an American rocket.[14] The satellites Sakura and Yuri were later also launched by American rockets. The N-I rocket used technology acquired from manufacturing technology and management techniques only, but by frequently keeping records, NASDA gradually acquired more technology and the rate of satellite production in Japan has increased since the Himawari 2.

Since then, in order to meet the demands of larger satellites, NASDA started the development of the N-II rocket, the successor to the N-I rocket. The second stage changed to knock-down kit. The nearly 300 kg Himawari 2 was able to be put into geostationary orbit. These rockets made use of United States's Delta rocket's licensed production and the U.S. component's knockdown production, so the vehicles themselves were of high quality. However, when parts such as the satellite's apogee kick motor and black box wore down, information on how to improve them was very difficult to obtain. Thus, it became necessary for Japan to independently develop the entire rocket and domestic development had begun.[1] The newly developed H-I rocket made use of the liquid fuel rocket LE-5 engine that was originally researched and developed, and changed to this rocket's engine in the second stage.[14] The LE-5 is characterized by its ability to re-ignite, which made it stronger than the N-II, and the H-I rocket was able to launch objects exceeding 500 kg into geostationary orbit.

The rockets NASDA produced were used to launch many commercial satellites, the rapidly increasing amount of communication satellites and broadcasting satellites, weather satellites, and so on. Nine H-I rockets were manufactured, all of which have been successfully launched. This was the first time Japan had successfully launched multiple satellites simultaneously.[14]

Japan did not develop the technology for manned space flight. Mouri Mamoru, in cooperation with NASA, was originally scheduled to be the first Japanese to go into space in 1990 but due to circumstances with the shuttle, Toyohiro Akiyama, a civilian, became the first Japanese national to go into space aboard the Soyuz TM-11.[15]

Integration and institutional failure
M-V rocket launch rehearsal

NASDA LE-5 engine will be successful, even in light of technological progress in Japan has decided to develop a purely domestic liquid fuel rocket technology to improve domestic technology. The development was initiated from 1984. H-II rocket is a redesign everything from scratch. Toward the domestic first-stage engine completely, with difficulties in its development. First stage was to develop a new type of Japan LE-7 rocket engines are used in high-pressure combustion of hydrogen and oxygen gas, or parts damage due to vibration, and durability of the material issues It took some time to resolve. Hydrogen is also caused by revealing the explosion. Solid-propellant rocket boosters had to take advantage of the solid-propellant rocket technology has continued research in space science laboratory. Takes years to develop 10, HI in the last two years after the launch in 1994 decided to launch one rocket. February 3, was scheduled to be launched to put off a day fell from the launch pad for air conditioning duct fairing February 4, as the first complete domestic and liquid rocket became H-II rocket was launched in a rocket.[1]

On the other hand, the 1989 Space Science Institute Space Development policy outline enables the development of larger rockets conversions began in 1990 to develop rockets with solid-propellant rocket can planets. Problem occurs also in the development of rocket motors. The prolonged development, M-3SII again in 1997 after two years from the last flight of the rocket M-V was completed. Was born during a space launch vehicle for spacecraft Mars Nozomi was to postpone the launch of two years.

Japan was thus advanced the development of a rocket in 1990 and the USA trade policy, "Section 301" is applied, Japan international competitive bidding had to be practical for use in domestic satellites. This is useful for satellite launches, a lot to bring the US-made rocket that can launch more affordable, and produced a few high-cost domestic satellite, a commercial satellite in low-cost mass production of the West slightly enemy Himawari 5 was the successor to purchase American-made finished products.[1] Midori and environmental observation satellites for such,[16] HALCA astronomical satellites and experimental spacecraft and satellites is almost like a rocket can be launched in Japan, gave a great success of these satellites. However, it flowed overseas launch of commercial satellites is also the reason can not gain experience until now launch commercial rockets.

The late 1990s and early 2000s (decade) was to stumble on a newly developed rocket. H-II rocket flight 5 and flight 8 failed to launch in a row, M-V failed to launch even flight 4.[14] Nozomi failed to enter Mars orbit. Overlapping administrative reform movement from these failures and the occasion was to be proposed in the integration of government space agencies. Strengthening cooperation between organizations, prioritization of features, such as being a plan to streamline the organizational structure, Space Science Institute, October 1, 2003 (ISAS), National Space Development Agency (NASDA), aerospace Technology Laboratories (NAL) are integrated, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency was established.[17] Integration was the first time since the launch of a space agency H-IIA flight 6, but failed to launch, the rocket launches have been successful since.

Present day

H-IIA is a derivative of the earlier H-II rocket, substantially redesigned to improve reliability and minimize costs. Although this rocket failed shortly after launch integration, which will launch and many successful aircraft in 17 aircraft by September 18, 2010. Large payload to send equipment and supply to the international space station more H-IIB were developed. In order to launch the satellite easier cheaper MV solid fuel new successor to the Rocket Rocket Epsilon rocket is also being developed.[18] These developments in Japan are pursuing the possibility of re-launching business.

Now a lot of satellites and experimental spacecraft to launch satellites in the country, became a strong technical capabilities in this field. Meteorological satellite Himawari 7 can reduce costs by using satellite bus that was used to Kiku 8, was able to launch a domestic weather satellite again. Has been launched plans to launch a small scientific satellite lot, this plan is to allow for rapid development of inexpensive, custom-made satellites aims to share some semi.[19]

On the other hand, 1998 after missile tests by North Korea in the past, has never been done spy satellites is done and now the launch of the basic space law in 2008 finalized, now is made military use of space for defense purposes only. And is currently doing in this area and although the Japanese reconnaissance satellite and missile defense only. Budget has been diverted out of scientific space exploration budget for these plans, which put pressure on other technologies.[20] Space budget from other political factors tend to decrease. In addition, some factions of the organization state that the former JAXA affect the budget allocation. These are contributes to dampen the history of the Japanese space development.

The biggest success in recent years Hayabusa said feedback. Made the primary purpose of engineering experiments is the spacecraft in 2003 Uchinoura Space Center from MV asteroid was launched by rocket asteroid After exploring the 2010 returned to Earth.[21] There was a problem during landing when the landing on Itokawa, which had been most likely unable to collect samples of the asteroid, which contains a sample of asteroids in the capsules were returned, by which the spacecraft World The spacecraft was first brought back samples from an asteroid.[22]

In June 2014 Japan's science and technology ministry said it was considering a space mission to Mars. In a ministry paper it indicated unmanned exploration, manned missions to Mars and long-term settlement on the Moon were objectives, for which international cooperation and support was going to be sought.[23]

Organizations

Japan's space development Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo, which began as a study group, and are based on the Engineering of Tokyo was the second aircraft before the war and developing sources I follow it. This study group in 1964 [Tokyo Institute of Aerospace] as an independent. In 1963, the State National Aerospace Laboratory launched, along with aircraft technology that it was done by National Aerospace Laboratory. 1969 NASDA was launched, Aerospace R & D technology exports grew from problems specific to science. Then in 1981, the Aerospace was reorganized and became the National Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. The momentum of reforms and administrative arrangements-government organizations held in the early 2000s (decade) from the 1990s, overlapping the failure of the launch rocket, a consistent these institutions are necessary to strengthen cooperation organization, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) was launched.[17][24] Currently, Japan's space development JAXA is responsible for one hand.

Facilities

Defunct facilities
  • Akita Rocket Test Site
  • JAXAi

Companies

Rocket ranges
Japan's largest rocket range, the Tanegashima Space Center

There are two facilities in Japan with the ability to launch satellites: the Tanegashima Space Center and Uchinoura Space Center. NASDA liquid fuel rockets are launched from Tanegashima, while ISAS solid-propellant rockets are launched from Uchinoura.

In addition to the above two locations, there are other facilities used to launch test rockets.

Akita Rocket Test Site was used as a test launch facility by the University of Tokyo beginning in 1955. This test site was used for the last time in 1965 by the National Aerospace Laboratory, and now only a monument remains to commemorate the site.

The weather rocket station was established in April 1970 and was active until 21 March 2001. The MT-135P rocket was launched from there a total of 1,119 times. The site is currently used to observe air quality in the atmosphere.

The Niijima Test Range (Niijimashi Kenjo), located on the southern tip of Niijima Island, was established in March 1962 by the Technical Research and Development Institute of the Defense Agency. In 1963 the Ministry of Science and Technology rented the land and facilities from the Defense Agency and conducted rocket launch tests between 1963 and 1965.[25] It launched total of eighteen small rockets.[26] Because of the narrowness of the range, larger rockets were not suitable to be tested there. In 1969, the Defense Agency and local residents both opposed the newly formed Space Agency's project to build its own rocket test range at Niijima, and instead Tanegashima Space Center was built.[25]

Taiki Aerospace Research Field is a facility of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, which also provides them to private industry. Several tests of the CAMUI Rocket were launched from there between March 2002 and January 2003.[27]

In addition, Japan operates the Antarctic Showa Station. Between 1970 and 1985, rockets were launched by 54 groups for purposes such as ozone measurements and auroral observation.

Peaceful development

The Japanese space program has been developed for peaceful goals, completely separate from military technology. Therefore, the program's purposes are generally commercial or scientific.

According to JAXA's long-term vision, aerospace technology is to be used for:[28]

  • Natural disasters, support system for environmental issues
  • Planetary sciences, and technical research for the advancement of asteroid exploration
  • Improved reliability for stable transportation, related research and manned space activity
  • Key industries

References
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  2. Mercado, Stephen C (September 1995). "The YS-11 Project and Japan's Aerospace Potential". JPRI. Retrieved July 2, 2015.
  3. 国分寺市からロケット発射 [Shooting a rocket from Kokubunji] (in Japanese). Kokubunji, Tokyo. Archived from the original on January 20, 2011. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
  4. Ley, Willy (December 1967). "Astronautics International". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 110–120.
  5. ある新聞記事 [Newspaper articles] (in Japanese). Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. Retrieved January 30, 2011.
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  7. 六ヶ所村のミニ地球 [Rokkasho mini earth] (in Japanese). Space Association. Archived from the original on January 11, 2013. Retrieved January 25, 2011.
  8. 袁小兵 [Yuka Kohei] (2011). 日本太空事业发展探析. [An Analysis of the Development of Japan's Space Industry]. 国际观察 [International Review] (in Japanese). 6: 55–61, page 56. Archived from the original on June 2, 2020.
  9. "lambda glory". ISAS. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
  10. "The National Science Museum, February 7 "Ohsumi" 40th Anniversary Symposium". Astro Arts. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
  11. Pekkanen, Saadia; Kallender-Umezu, Paul (August 12, 2010). In Defense of Japan: From the Market to the Military in Space Policy - Saadia Pekkanen, Paul Kallender-Umezu - Google Books. ISBN 9780804775007. Retrieved January 21, 2020.
  12. "NI Rocket". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
  13. "Subcommittee No. 2 on Space Development Special Committee of Science and Technology Promotion Association 051 Diet". Archived from the original on March 17, 2012. Retrieved January 25, 2011.
  14. Noda Masahiro (March 27, 2000). Century Rocket. NTT Publishing. ISBN 4-7571-6004-6.
  15. "Akiyama". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on December 29, 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2010.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  16. Ministry Shima Hara. "Satellite "Midori" marine observation". National Institute for Environmental Studies. Retrieved January 25, 2011.
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  18. "Ipushironroketto". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
  19. "SPRINT (small scientific satellite) Outline Planning Series" (PDF). Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. July 21, 2010. Retrieved January 26, 2011.
  20. Shinya Matsuura Susumu (May 31, 2006). "lower costs at a crossroads in MV". nikkeiBPnet. Archived from the original on August 15, 2011. Retrieved January 26, 2011.
  21. ""Hayabusa" feedback". The Nikkei. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
  22. "Spacecraft Successfully Returns Asteroid Dust". Science. Archived from the original on November 20, 2010. Retrieved January 29, 2011.
  23. "Japanese hope to build on Mars". The Tokyo News.Net. Archived from the original on June 2, 2014. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
  24. "Ministry of Education, emphasis on efficient integration prospect 15 year space development agency three, years 30". Physical Society Division High School in Nara, Rika. Sankei. June 14, 2003. Archived from the original on September 4, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2011.
  25. 札幌試験場視察 [Visit to Sapporo Proving Ground] (PDF). Electronic Equipment Research Institute / Advanced Technology Promotion Center Headquarters Kobo [newsletter] (in Japanese). No. 503. General Affairs Division, General Affairs Department, Technology Research Headquarters, Ministry of Defense. March 8, 2010. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 5, 2016.
  26. "Niijima". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 21, 2019.
  27. Nagata, Harunori (February 7, 2004). "The Forefront of Space Science: Hybrid Rocket "CAMUI"". Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS). p. 2. Archived from the original on October 1, 2006.
  28. "JAXA2025 / long-term vision". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved January 17, 2011.
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