Maithili grammar

This page describes the grammar of Maithili language, which has a complex verbal system, nominal declension with a few inflections, and extensive use of honoroficity. It is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Maithili people and is spoken in the Indian state of Bihar with some speakers in Jharkhand and nearby states.The language has a large number of speakers in Nepal too, which is second in number of speakers after Bihar.[1]

Maithili has the following characteristic morphological features:

• Number is not grammatically marked.
• Gender distinctions are also absent in verbs and pronouns.
• There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
• Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.[2]

Phonology

Consonants

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop/ Affricate	voiceless	प p	त t	ट ʈ	च tɕ	क k
	aspirated	फ pʰ	थ tʰ	ठ ʈʰ	छ tɕʰ	ख kʰ
	voiced	ब b	द d	ड ɖ	ज dʑ	ग ɡ
	voiced aspirated	भ bʱ	ध dʱ	ढ ɖʱ	झ dʑʱ	घ ɡʱ
Fricative	voiceless	फ़ (ɸ~f)	स s	ष (ʂ)	श (ɕ)	ख़ (x)	ः -(h)*
	voiced		ज़ (z)		झ़ (ʑ)		ह (ɦ)
Nasal		म m	न n	ण ɳ	ञ (ɲ)	ङ ŋ
Flap and Trill consonants			र ɾ~r	ड़ (ɽ)
Lateral			ल l
Approximant		व (ʋ~w)			य (j)

• Fricative sounds [ʂ, ɕ] only occur marginally, and are typically pronounced as a dental fricative /s/ in most styles of pronunciation.ः is always added after a vowel.
• In most styles of pronunciation, the retroflex flap [ɽ] occurs marginally, and is usually pronounced as an alveolar tap /r/ sound.
• A retroflex nasal sound [ɳ] only occurs before a voiced retroflex /ɖ/ sound.
• Approximant sounds [ʋ, w, j] and fricative sounds [ɸ, f, z, ʑ, x], mainly occur in words that are borrowed from Sanskrit or in words of Perso-Arabic origin. From Sanskrit, puʂp(ə) as puɸp(ə). Conjunct of ɦj as ɦʑ as in graɦjə as graɦʑə.[3]

Non syllabic Vowels

There are four non-syllabic vowels in Maithili- i̯, u̯, e̯, o̯ written in Devanagari as य़, व़, य़ॆ, व़ॊ. Most of the times, these are written without nukta.

Vowels

	Front		Central		Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	इ ɪ	ई iː			उ ʊ	ऊ uː
Mid	ऎ e	ए eː	अ ə~ɐ	अऽ əː	ऒ o	ओ oː
Open	ऍ æ~ɛ	ꣾ ɛː	ॴ ä	आ äː	अ^ऽ ɔ	ॵ ɔː
Diphthongs		ꣾ əɪ̯				ॵ əʊ̯
		ऐ aːɪ̯				औ aːʊ̯

• All vowels have nasal counterparts, represented by "~" in IPA and ँ on the vowels, like आँ ãː .
• All vowel sounds are realized as nasal when occurring before or after a nasal consonant.[4]
• Sounds ɛː and ɔː are often replaced by diphthongs əɪ̯ and əʊ̯ in most of the dialects.
• æ is a recent development.
• ɔ is replaced by ə or even ə̯ in northern dialects and by o in southernmost dialects.
• There are three short vowels, as described by Grierson, but not counted by modern grammarians. But they could be understood as syllable break :- ॳ / ɘ̆ /, इऺ/ ɪ̆ /, उऺ/ ʊ̆ / . Or as syllable break ऺ in Devanagari and "." in IPA.
• ꣾ is a Unicode letter in Devanagari, (IPA /əɪ̯/) which is not supported currently on several browsers and operating systems, along with its mātrā (vowel sign).

Diphthongs

अय़(ꣾ) / əi̯ / ~ /ɛː/ - अय़सनऺ (ꣾ सनऺ) / əi̯sənᵊ / ~ /ɛːsɐnᵊ/ 'like this'
अव़(ॵ) / əu̯ / ~ /ɔː/- चव़मुुखऺ(चॏमुखऺ) / tɕəu̯mʊkʰᵊ / ~ /tɕɔːmʊkʰᵊ/ 'four faced'
अयॆ / əe̯ / - अयॆलाः / əe̯la:h / 'came'
अवॊ (अऒ) / əo̯ / - अवॊताः / əo̯ta:h / 'will come'
ऐ / a:i̯ / - ऐ / a:i̯ / 'today'
औ / a:u̯ / - औ / a:u̯ / 'come please'
आयॆ (आऎ) / a:e̯ / - आयॆलऺ / a:e̯l / 'came'
आवॊ (आऒ) / a:o̯ / - आवॊबऺ / a:o̯bᵊ / 'will come'
यु (इउ) / iu̯/ - घ्यु / ghiu̯ / 'ghee'
यॆ (इऎ) / ie̯ / - यॆः / ie̯h / 'only this'
यॊ (इऒ) / io̯ / - कह्यो / kəhio̯ / 'any day'
वि (उइ) / ui̯ / - द्वि / dui̯ / 'two'
वॆ (उऎ) /ue̯/ - वॆ: / ue̯h / 'only that'

Svarabhakti (Vowel Epenthesis)

A peculiar type of phonetic change is recently taking place in Maithili by way of epenthesis i.e. backward transposition of final i and u in all sort of words.[5] Thus:

Standard Colloquial - Common Pronunciation

अछि / əchi / - अइछऺ / əich / 'is'

रवि / rəbi / - रइबऺ / rəib / 'sunday'

मधु / mədhu / - मउधऺ / məudh / 'honey'

बालु / ba:lu / - बाउलऺ / ba:ul / 'sand'

Nominals

Nouns are inflected for several cases. Grammarians consider only few of them to be pure inflection.

Case name		Postpositions	Examples	English translation	Singular Inflection	Plural Inflection*
Nominative (कर्ता kartā)			नेन^ऽ खैतऺ छे।	Boy is eating.	∅ (Inherent Vowel)	-(अ)नऺ, -(अ)निऺ (ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆
Accusative (कर्म karma)[6]	Definite Object (without determiners)	के ke	ऊ नेनाके खिलैैतꣿ।	He/she will feed the boy.	Postposition used ←
	Indefinite Object		बियाहकऺ बादऺ ऊ पालऺतꣿ नेना।	He/she nurture a boy, after marriage	∅
Instrumental (करण karaṇa)		सँ^ऽ sɔ̃	नेनासँ^ऽ गिरलऺ रहꣿ।	It was fallen by the boy.	-एँ ẽː**	-(अ)न्हिऺ (ə)nʰɪ̆
Dative (सम्प्रदान sampradāna)		कॅ, लॅ, लेलऺ kæ læ, leːlᵊ	नेनाकॅ खाना खिलौ।	Feed the boy the food.	-(अ)ल (ə)lə	Postposition used ←
Ergative[7] (सापेक्ष)‡		न, नॆ nə, ne	नेनेँ पेड़ दॆखलऺकꣿ।	The boy saw the tree.	-एँ ẽː, nasalised vowel	No forms
Ablative (अपादान apādāna)		तोँ tõː (mostly for comparative) सॆ se	पेड़ऺसॆ फलऺ गिरलकꣿ।	Fruit fell from the tree.	-(अ)तः (ə)təh -(अ)हु*
Genitive (सम्बन्ध sambandha)		करऺ kərᵊ	नेनाकऺ खॆॆलॏनऽ छिकꣿ।	The toy is of the boy.	-(अ)कऺ (ə)kᵊ -(अ)रऺ (ə)rᵊ	-केरऺ, -आँँकऺ keːrᵊ, ãːkə̆ᵊ
Locative (अधिकरण adhikaraṇa)		तऽ təː मेँ, मँ^ऽ (Inessive) पर्, पॅ pər, pæ (Superessive)	छतऺपर् रखऺने छꣿ।	It is placed on the terrace.	-ए eː** -(अ)हि*	-आँ ãː
Postpositional (परसर्गीय parasargīya)§			अगऺलऽ महीनामेँ हॊय़तꣿ।	It will happen in next month.	∅ (In र, ड़, ढ़, ल, न, ब stems -आ aː)	-(अ)नऺ, -(अ)निऺ (ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆ (ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆
Vocative (सम्बोधन sambodhana)			रॏ नेनऽ! औ।	O boy! Come.	∅

• *These forms are abundant in literature, but are less used in spoken language.
• ‡Ergative is more used in eastern and southern dialects. Maithili also has parallel accusative structure and both can be used. If ergative is used, then nominative is used as absolutive.
• **Used only in neuter and inanimates.
• §It is used, when a postposition is added to the word. Some other postpositions are-

Case name		Postposition
Allative		दक dəkə
Terminative		तकऺ, लऻ təkᵊ, laː
Abessive		बिनु bɪnʊ
Adverbial		जकऻँ , सोँ dʑəkãː, sõː
Genitive adjectives	Masculine object	क^ऽ, र^ऽ kɔ, rɔ
	Feminine object	कि, रि kɪ, rɪ
	Neuter object	कऽ, रऽ kəː, rəː

Some postpositions are added to the genitive too.

• Inflectional plural is less in use than the Periphrastic one, and is mostly found in literature.
• Periphrastic Plural is made by suffixes like सभऺ səbʰᵊ; लोकनिऺ loːknɪ̆, सबहिऺ səbəɦɪ̆, गण ɡəɳᵊ, जन dʑənᵊ could be used for animates and आरनिऺ aːrənɪ̆, सनि sənɪ for all.

Common vowel stem

Case name	Singular Inflection			Plural Inflection
	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Masculine	Neuter
Nominative	-इ ɪ	-अ^ऽ ɔ	-अऽ əː	-इनऺ ɪnᵊ	-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆	-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆
Accusative (Indefinite)	-ई iː	-अऽ əː		-ई iː	-अऽ əː
Instrumental	Postposition used		-एँ ẽː	Postposition used		-अन्हिऺ ənʰɪ̆
Dative	Postposition used
	-इल ɪlə	-अल ələ		No forms
Ergative	-इयेँ ɪẽː	-एँ ẽː
Ablative	-इतः ɪtəh	-अतः ətəh
Genitive	-इकऺ ɪkᵊ, इर॑ ɪrᵊ	-अकऺ əkᵊ, -अरऺ ərᵊ		-ईंकऺ ĩːkᵊ	-आँँकऺ ãːkᵊ
Locative	Postposition used		-ए eː	Postposition used		-आँ ãː
Vocative	-इ ɪ/ई iː	-अऽ əː		-इनऺ ɪnᵊ	-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Consonant stem

Case name	Singular Inflection		Plural Inflection
	Masculine	Neuter	Masculine	Neuter
Nominative	∅		-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆	-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆
Accusative (Indefinite)			∅
Instrumental	Postposition used	-एँ ẽː	Postposition used	-अन्हिऺ ənʰɪ̆
Dative	Postposition used
	-अल ələ		No forms
Ergative	-एँ ẽː
Ablative	-अतः ətəh
Genitive	-अकऺ əkᵊ, -अरऺ ərᵊ		-आँँकऺ ãːkᵊ kᵊ kᵊ
Locative	Postposition used	-ए eː	Postposition used	-आँ ãː
Vocative	∅		-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Feminine stem -आ aː

Case name	Singular Inflection	Plural Inflection
Nominative	-आ aː	-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆
Accusative (Indefinite)		-आ aː
Instrumental	Postposition used, -एँ ẽː*
Dative	Postposition used
	-आल aːlə	No forms
Ergative	-आयेँ aːẽː, आँ ãː
Ablative	-आतः aːtəh
Genitive	-आकऺ aːkᵊ, -आरऺ aːrᵊ	-आँँकऺ ãːkᵊ kᵊ kᵊ
Locative	Postposition used
Vocative	-ए eː	-अनऺ, -अनिऺ ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

• *Though, used for neuter and inanimates, it is used for female inanimates or abstract.

Other Vowel stems

	इ	ई	उ	ऊ	ऎ	ऒ	ए	ऐ	ओ	औ
Masculine	✓	×	✓	×	✓	✓	✓	×	✓	✓
Feminine	✓	✓	✓	✓	×	×	✓	✓	✓	✓
Neuter	✓	×	✓	×	✓	✓	✓	×	✓	✓
Declension irregularities
Ergative	Nasalised vowel or ↓
Instrumental (Neuter only)*	इयेँ		उवेँ		एँ	ऒवेँ	अयेँ	आयेँ	अवेँ	आवेँ
Locative (Neuter only)	इये		उवे		ए	ऒवे	अये	आये	अवे	आवे
Vocative	ए	इ	ओ	उ	ए	ओ	ए	ओ	ऐ	औ

• Specifically saying, inanimates.

Adjectives

The difference between adjectives and nouns is very minute in Maithili. However, there are marked adjectives there in Maithili.

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Definite	-क^ऽ kɔ	-कि/किऺ kɪ/kɪ̆	कऽ kəː
Indefinite	-अ^ऽ ɔ	-इ/इऺ ɪ/ɪ̆	ॳ/अऽ ᵊ/əː

Pronouns

Pronouns in Maithili are declined in similar way to nominals. However, genetic case has a different form in most of the pronouns.

First and Second Person Pronouns[1]

Case name	First Person		Second Person
	Exclusive	Inclusive (Plural)	First Grade Honour	Honorofic	High-Honorofic
Nominative	हमऺ ɦəmᵊ	Normally Declined अपऺना सभऺ ɐpᵊnaː səbʰᵊ	तोँहऺ tõːhᵊ	अहाँ ɐɦãː	Declined Normally अपऺने ɐpᵊneː
Accusative/Postpositional	हमऺरा ɦəmᵊraː		तॊहऺरा/तोरा toɦᵊraː/toːraː	अहाँ (के) ɐɦãː (keː)
Instrumental	हमऺरेँ ɦəmᵊrẽː		तोहऺरेँ toɦᵊrẽː	अहेँ ɐɦẽː
Dative	हमऺरा ɦəmᵊraː		तोहऺरा/तोरा toɦᵊraː/toːraː	अहाँ के ɐɦãː ke
	हमऺराल ɦəmᵊraːlə		तोहऺराल toɦᵊraːlə	अहाँलॅ ɐɦãːlæ
Ergative	हम्मेँ ɦəmmẽː		तोयेँ/तोहेँ toːẽː/toɦẽː	अहꣿँ ɐɦə̃ɪ̯̃
Genitive	हमरऺ/हम्मरऺ ɦəmərᵊ/ɦəmmərᵊ	अपना सभकऺ ɐpᵊnaː səbʰəkə	तोहरऺ toɦərᵊ	अहाँकऺ ɐɦãːkᵊ

Third Person Pronouns[1]

Case name	Proximate			Second Person
	First Grade Honour	Honorofic	Neuter	First Grade Honour	Honorofic	Neuter
Nominative	ई iː	ए, हिनि eː, ɦɪnɪ	ए eː	ऊ, वा uː, ʋaː	ओ, हुनि oː, ɦʊnɪ	ऒ o
Accusative/Postpositional	ऎकऺरा ekᵊraː	हिनऺका ɦɪnᵊkaː	ऎहि, ꣾ, अथि eɦɪ, əɪ, ɐtʰɪ	ऒकऺरा okᵊraː	हुनऺका ɦʊnᵊkaː	ऒहि, ॵ oɦɪ, əʊ
Instrumental	ऎकऺरेँ ekᵊrẽː	हिनऺकेँ ɦɪnᵊkẽː	एँ ẽː	ऒकऺरेँ okᵊrẽː	हुनऺकेँ ɦʊnᵊkẽː	ओँ õː
Dative	ऎकऺरा ekᵊraː	हिनऺका ɦɪnᵊkaː	ऎहि eɦɪ	ऒकऺरा okᵊraː	हुनऺका ɦʊnᵊkaː	ऒहि oɦɪ
	ऎकऺराल ekᵊraːlᵊ	हिनऺकाल ɦɪnᵊkaːlᵊ	एलॅ eːlæ	ऒकऺराल okᵊraːlᵊ	हुनऺकाल ɦʊnᵊkaːlᵊ	ओलॅ oːlæ
Ergative	येँ ɪẽː	येँ, हिनेँ ɪẽː, ɦɪnẽː	एँ ẽː	वेँ ʊẽː		ओँ õː
Genitive	ऎकरऺ ekərᵊ	हिनऺकरऺ, हिनकऺ ɦɪnᵊkərᵊ, ɦɪnəkᵊ	ऎःकरऺ ehkərᵊ	ओकरऺ okərᵊ	हुनऺकरऺ, हुनकऺ ɦʊnᵊkərᵊ, ɦʊnəkaː	ऒःकरऺ ohkərᵊ

References

1. Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014558-8.
2. Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014558-8.
3. Grierson, George Abraham; Asiatic Society (Calcutta, India) Journal and proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1909). An introduction to the Maithili dialect of the Bihari language as spoken in North Bihar. University of California Libraries. Calcutta : Asiatic Society.
4. Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Trends in Linguistics: Documentation, 11.: Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 15–27.CS1 maint: location (link)
5. "Maithili". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
6. "Maithili". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
7. "Maithili Variation". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2020-04-22.