Puquina language

Puquina (or Pukina) is a small, putative language family, often portrayed as a language isolate, which consists of the extinct Puquina language and Kallawaya, although it is assumed that the latter is just a remnant of the former mixed with Quechuan. The Qhapaq simi, which was spoken by the Inca elite, in contrast to the Quechuan-speaking commoners, is thought to be related, as well as, the Leco isolate language. They are spoken by several native ethnic groups in the region surrounding Lake Titicaca (Peru and Bolivia) and in the north of Chile. Puquina itself is often associated with the culture that built Tiwanaku.

Puquina languages
Geographic distribution	Around Lake Titicaca
Linguistic classification	Language isolate or one of the world's primary language families.[1] Mostly, unclassified.
Subdivisions	Puquina † Leco?[2] Kallawaya Qhapaq?[3] †
ISO 639-3	puq
Glottolog	puqu1242

Pukina language distribution around 1600 CE, Pukina toponyms, and pre-Inca Pukina ethnicities.

Background

Remnants of the single, ancestral Puquina language can be found in the Quechuan and Spanish languages spoken in the south of Peru, mainly in Arequipa, Moquegua and Tacna, as well as in Bolivia. There also seem to be remnants in the Kallawaya language, which may be a mixed language formed from Quechuan languages and Puquina. (Terrence Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal plausible.[4])

Some theories claim that "Qhapaq Simi", the cryptic language of the nobility of the Inca Empire, was closely related to Puquina, and that Runa Simi (Quechuan languages) were spoken by commoners. The Leco language might also be related.[4]

Moulian et al. (2015) argue that Puquina language influenced Mapuche language of southern Chile long before the rise of the Inca Empire.[5] This areal linguistic influence may have started with a migratory wave arising from the collapse of the Tiwanaku empire around 1000 CE.[5][6]

Sometimes the term Puquina is used for the Uru language, which is distinctly different.

Classification

Puquina has been considered an unclassified language family, since it has not been proven to be firmly related to any other languages in the Andean region. A relationship with the Arawakan languages has long been suggested, based solely on the possessive paradigm (1st no-, 2nd pi-, 3rd ču-), which is similar to the proto-Arawakan subject forms (1st * nu-, 2nd * pi-, 3ª * tʰu-). Recently Jolkesky (2016: 310-317) has presented further possible lexical cognates between Puquina and the Arawakan languages, proposing that this language family belongs to the putative Macro-Arawakan stock along with the Candoshi and the Munichi languages. However, such a hypothesis still lacks conclusive scientific evidence.

In this regard, Adelaar and van de Kerke (2009: 126) have pointed out that if in fact the Puquina languages are, genetically, related to the Arawakan languages, its separation from this family must have occurred at a relatively early date; the authors further suggest that in such a case the location of the Puquina speakers should be taken into account in the debate over the geographic origin of the Arawakan family. Such consideration was taken up by Jolkesky (op. cit., 611-616) in his archaeo-ecolinguistic model of diversification of the Macro-Arawakan languages. According to this author, the proto-Macro-Arawakan language would have been spoken in the Middle Ucayali River Basin during the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE and its speakers would have produced the Tutishcainyo pottery found in this region.

Jolkesky (2016) classifies Puquina as a Macro-Arawakan language.[7]

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Jaqi, Kawapana, Kechua, Pano, and Uru-Chipaya language families due to contact.[8]

Vocabulary

Numerals in Puquina and other nearby languages:[9]

Numeral	Puquina	Kallawaya	Uru	Quechua	Aymara
1	pesq	uksi	shi	huk ~ shuk	naya
2	so	soo	pisqe	iskay	paya
3	qapa	qapi	chcp	kimsa	kimsa
4	sper	pili	pakpik	tawa	pusi
5	taqpa	chisma	paanuqo	pisqa	pisqa
6	chichun	tajwa	pachuy	suqta	sojta (qallqo)
7	stu	kajsi	tohonqo	qanchis	pa qallqo
8	kina	wasa	qonqo	pusaq	kimsa qallqo
9	cheqa	nuki	sanqaw	isqun	lla-tunqa
10	sqara	jocha	qalo	chunka	tunqa

Pronouns in Puquina and other nearby languages:[9]

Spanish	Puquina	Kallawaya	Uru	Quechua	Aymara
I	ni	nisi	wiril	ñuqa	naya
you (sg.)	pi	chuu	amp	qam	juma
he	chu, hi	chuinin	tis, nis	pay	jupa
we (inclusive)	nich	nisiyku	uchumi	ñuqayku	jiwasa
we (exclusive)	señ	nisinchej	wisnaqa	ñuqanchik	nanaka
you (pl.)	pich	chuukunas	ampchuqa	qamkuna	jumanaka
they	chuch	chuininkuna	nisnaqa	paykuna	jupanaka

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for Puquina and Kallawaya (which he calls Pohena).[10]

gloss	Puquina	Kallawaya
one	pesk	uxsi
two	so	suyo
three	kapak	kxapi
head		kxutu
eye	sekbi	paxañi
hand	kupi	sui
woman	atago	atasi
water	unu	mimi

References

2. "The Puquina and Leko languages - Advances in Native South American Historical Linguistics". 52ica.etnolinguistica.org.
3. "The Much Debated History of Quechua". January 18, 2014.
4. Willem Adelaar; Simon van de Kerke. "The Puquina and Leko languages". Symposium: Advances in Native South American Historical Linguistics, July 17-18, 2006, at the 52nd International Congress of Americanists, Seville, Spain. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
5. Moulian, Rodrígo; Catrileo, María; Landeo, Pablo (2015). "Afines quechua en el vocabulario mapuche de Luis de Valdivia" [Akins Quechua words in the Mapuche vocabulary of Luis de Valdivia]. Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada (in Spanish). 53 (2). doi:10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
6. Dillehay, Tom D.; Pino Quivira, Mario; Bonzani, Renée; Silva, Claudia; Wallner, Johannes; Le Quesne, Carlos (2007) Cultivated wetlands and emerging complexity in south-central Chile and long distance effects of climate change. Antiquity 81 (2007): 949–960
7. Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. Doutorado em Linguística. Universidade de Brasília.
8. Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2016). Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas (Ph.D. dissertation) (2 ed.). Brasília: University of Brasília.
9. Aguiló, Federico. 2000. El Idioma del Pueblo Puquina: Un enigma que va aclarándose. Quito, Ecuador: Intercultural de las Nacionalidades Pueblos Indígenas/Fondo Ecuatoriano Populorum Progressio. 116pp.
10. Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.

Bibliography

• Adelaar, Willem and van de Kerke, Simon (2009). "Puquina." In: Mily Crevels and Pieter Muysken (eds.) Lenguas de Bolivia, vol. I, 125-146. La Paz: Plural editores. (in Spanish)
• Aguiló, F. (1991). Diccionario kallawaya. La Paz: MUSEF
• Girault, L. (1989). Kallawaya: el idioma secreto de los incas. Diccionario. Bolivia: UNICEF/OPS/OMS.
• La Grasserie, R. de. (1894). Langues Américaines: langue Puquina; textes Puquina. Leipzig: Köhler.
• Jolkesky, Marcelo (2016). Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. Brasilia: UnB. PhD Dissertation. Available here.