First plague pandemic

The First Plague Pandemic was the first Old World pandemic of plague, the contagious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. Also called the Early Medieval Pandemic, it began with the Plague of Justinian in 541 and continued until 750 or 767; at least fifteen or eighteen major waves of plague following the Justinianic plague have been identified from historical records.[1][2] The pandemic affected the Mediterranean Basin most severely and most frequently, but also infected the Near East and Northern Europe.[3] The Roman emperor Justinian I's name is sometimes applied to the whole series of plague epidemics in late Antiquity, as well as to the Plague of Justinian which struck the Eastern Roman Empire in the early 540s.

This article is about the series of plague pandemics, 541–767. For the first episode of the First Plague Pandemic, 541–549, see Plague of Justinian.

The pandemic is best known from its first and last outbreaks: the Justinianic Plague of 541–549, described by the contemporary Roman historian Procopius, and the late 8th century plague of Naples described by Neapolitan historian John the Deacon in the following century (distinct of the much later Naples Plague). Other accounts from contemporaries of the pandemic are included in the texts of Evagrius Scholasticus, John of Ephesus, Gregory of Tours, Paul the Deacon, and Theophanes the Confessor; most seem to have believed plague was a divine punishment for human misdeeds.[3]

Terminology

While Latin and Byzantine Greek texts treated the disease as a generic pestilence (Ancient Greek: λοιμός, romanized: loimós, Latin: plaga), only later did Arabic writers term the condition ṭāʿūn (to some extent interchangeable with wabāʾ, 'plague').[3][4]

In Syriac, both bubonic plague and the buboes themselves are called sharʿūṭā. The Chronicle of Seert makes this term synonymous with Arabic ṭāʿūn. Often, however, Syriac writers referred to an outbreak simply as a pestilence or mortality, mawtānā, equivalent to Arabic wabāʾ. In Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor's Historia Miscellanea, the clarifying combined form mawtānā d sharʿūṭā (plague of tumors) is found. The Chronicle of 640 of Thomas the Presbyter dates the "first plague" (mawtānā qadmayā) to the year AG 854 (AD 542/3).[5]

Plague in Africa and South Arabia

Several sources attest the plague's origins in Africa. According to Jacob of Edessa (died 708), the "great plague (mawtānā rabbā) began in the region of Kush (Nubia), south of Egypt, in the year AG 853 (AD 541–542). Evagrius Scholasticus (died 594) and the Historia Miscellanea also place its origins in Aethiopia (Nubia) on the border of Egypt. Michael the Syrian, relying on the lost chronicle of John of Ephesus (died c. 590), says that it began in Kush on the border of Egypt and in Himyar (Yemen). An inscription dated to 543 records how Abraha, the Ethiopian ruler of Himyar, repaired the Maʾrib dam after sickness and death had struck the local community.[5] The Chronicle of Seert records that Aksum (al-Habasha) was hit by the pandemic.[5]

Early Arabic sources record that plague was endemic in Nubia and Abyssinia.[6] The testimony of Procopius, who says that the plague began in Pelusium in the east of the Nile Delta and then spread to Alexandria, is consistent with an introduction from the Red Sea region, possible via ship-borne rats if the Canal of the Pharaohs was still open. The plague could have originated in commercial links with India or in growing Roman religious links with Nubia and Aksum.[7] A link with India is rendered less likely by the fact that the plague arrived in the Roman Empire before arriving in Persia or China, which had closer links with India. According to Peter Sarris, the "geopolitical context of the early sixth century," with an Aksumite–Roman alliance against Himyar and Persia, "was arguably the crucial prerequisite for the transmission of the plague from Africa to Byzantium."[6]

Plague of Justinian (541–549)
Main articles: Plague of Justinian and Plague of Mohill

Plagues in Francia (541–)

According to the bishop-chronicler of Tours in the late 6th century, Gregory of Tours, there were numerous epidemics of plague in the Kingdom of the Franks after the Justinianic Plague struck Arelate (Arles) and the surrounding region in the late 540s.[8] Various portents were witnessed and to expiate them the inhabitants of affected areas resorted to processions, prayers, and vigils.[8]

Gregory records an epidemic in 571 in the Auvergne and in the cities of Divio (Dijon), Avaricum (Bourges), Cabillonum (Chalon-sur-Saône), and Lugdunum (Lyon).[8] Gregory's description of the plague as causing wounds in the armpit or groin that he described as resembling snakebite and of patients dying delirious within two or three days allow identification of the disease as bubonic plague; the "wounds" are the characteristic buboes.[8]

In 582 Gregory of Tours reports an epidemic in Narbo Martius (Narbonne). According to him, the majority of the townsfolk at Albi in 584 died of an outbreak of plague.[8]

Massilia (Marseille) was hit by plague in 588; there the king Guntram of Francia recommended a strict diet of barley bread and water.[8] Gregory blames a ship arriving from Hispania for being the source of the contagion, and the epidemic recurred several times thereafter.[8]

In 590 Gregory records another plague epidemic at Vivarium (Viviers) and at Avenio (Avignon) at the same time as the plague broke out in Rome under Pope Pelagius II.[8]

Plague of Rome (590–)
Main article: Roman Plague of 590

Plague of Sheroe (627–628)
Main article: Plague of Sheroe

Plague of Amwas (638–639)
Main article: Plague of Amwas

Plague of 664
Main article: Plague of 664

Plagues of 698–701 and of 746–747

These plagues affected the Byzantine Empire, West Asia, Syria, and Mesopotamia[9] and the Byzantine Empire, West Asia, and Africa[10] respectively.

Further reading
  • Snowden, Frank M. (2019). Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-19221-6. JSTOR j.ctvqc6gg5.
  • Green, Monica H. (2018-12-24). "Putting Africa on the Black Death map: Narratives from genetics and history". Afriques. Débats, Méthodes et Terrains d'Histoire (9). doi:10.4000/afriques.2125. ISSN 2108-6796.
  • Sussman, George D. (2015). "Scientists Doing History: Central Africa and the Origins of the First Plague Pandemic". Journal of World History. 26 (2): 325–354. ISSN 1045-6007. JSTOR 43901755.
  • Tsiamis, Costas; Poulakou-Rebelakou, Effie; Androutsos, George (2014). "The Role of the Egyptian Sea and Land Routes in the Justinian Plague: the Case of Pelusium". In Michaelides, Demetrios (ed.). Medicine and Healing in the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxbow Books. pp. 334–337. ISBN 978-1-78297-235-8. JSTOR j.ctvh1djxz.
  • Pamuk, Şevket; Shatzmiller, Maya (2014). "Plagues, Wages, and Economic Change in the Islamic Middle East, 700–1500". The Journal of Economic History. 74 (1): 196–229. doi:10.1017/S0022050714000072. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 24550555.
  • Lee, A. D. (2013). "Justinian and the End of Antiquity". From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 286–300. ISBN 978-0-7486-2790-5. JSTOR 10.3366/j.ctt1g0b1z1.23.
  • Allen, P. (1979). "The "Justinianic" Plague". Byzantion. 49: 5–20. ISSN 0378-2506. JSTOR 44172672. PMID 17252657.
  • Dols, Michael W. (1974). "Plague in Early Islamic History". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 94 (3): 371–383. doi:10.2307/600071. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 600071.

References
  1. Arrizabalaga, Jon (2010), Bjork, Robert E. (ed.), "plague and epidemics", The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866262-4, retrieved 2020-05-16, The first - called the Plague of Justinian and described by Procopius - spread through Europe and Asia Minor from Egypt in 541 and included fifteen epidemics until 767
  2. Stathakopoulos, Dionysios (2018), "Plague, Justinianic (Early Medieval Pandemic)", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-05-16, bubonic plague that began in 541 and returned in some eighteen waves (approximately one every twelve years) until 750
  3. Stathakopoulos, Dionysios (2018), "Plague, Justinianic (Early Medieval Pandemic)", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 2020-05-16
  4. Van Den Bossche, Gowaart (22 April 2020). "Contagion in the Corpus: The Black Death and Where to Find It". kitab-project.org. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  5. Michael G. Morony (2007), "'For Whom Does the Writer Write?': The First Bubonic Plague Pandemic According to Syriac Sources", in Lester K. Little (ed.), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750, Cambridge University Press, pp. 59–86, at 61–63.
  6. Peter Sarris (2007), "Bubonic Plague in Byzantium: The Evidence of Non-Literary Sources", in Lester K. Little (ed.), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750, Cambridge University Press, pp. 119–132, at 121–123.
  7. Michael McCormick (2007), "Toward a Molecular History of the Justinianic Pandemic", in Lester K. Little (ed.), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750, Cambridge University Press, pp. 290–312, at 303–304.
  8. Kohn, George C. (2007). "Frankish Plagues of the Sixth Century". Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present. Infobase Publishing. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-1-4381-2923-5.
  9. Little, Little (2007). Plague and the end of Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4.
  10. Turner, David (November 1990). "The Politics of Despair: The Plague of 746–747 and Iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire1". Annual of the British School at Athens. 85: 419–434. doi:10.1017/S006824540001577X. ISSN 2045-2403.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.