Charles II of Spain

Charles II of Spain (6 November 1661 – 1 November 1700), also known as The Bewitched (Spanish: El Hechizado), was the last Habsburg ruler of the Spanish Empire. He is best remembered for his alleged physical disabilities, and the war that followed his death.

Charles II
Portrait by Juan Carreño de Miranda, c. 1685, shows the Habsburg jaw
King of Spain (more)
Reign	17 September 1665 – 1 November 1700
Predecessor	Philip IV
Successor	Philip V
Regent	Mariana of Austria (1665–1675)
Born	6 November 1661 Royal Alcazar of Madrid, Spain
Died	1 November 1700 (aged 38) Royal Alcazar of Madrid, Spain
Burial	Monasterio del Escorial
Spouse	Marie Louise d’Orléans ​ ​ (m. 1679; died 1689)​ Maria Anna of Neuburg ​ ​ (m. 1689)​
House	Habsburg
Father	Philip IV of Spain
Mother	Mariana of Austria
Religion	Roman Catholicism
Signature

Charles suffered ill health throughout his life; from the moment he became king at the age of four in 1665, the succession was a prominent consideration in European politics. The historian John Langdon-Davies summarised this as follows: "Of no man is it more true to say that in his beginning was his end; from the day of his birth, they were waiting for his death".[1]

He married twice but remained childless. When he died in 1700, his heir was 16-year-old Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV and his first wife, Charles's elder half-sister, Maria Theresa.[2] However, the succession of Charles was less important than the division of his territories, and the failure to resolve that question led to war in 1701.

Personal details

Charles was the only surviving son of Mariana of Austria (1634–1696) and Philip IV of Spain (1605–1665) who was 56 years old at the time of his son's birth. For political reasons, marriages between Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were common; Philip and Mariana were uncle and niece, making Charles their great-nephew and first cousin once removed respectively. All eight of his great-grandparents were descendants of Joanna and Philip I of Castile.[3]

Monument to Charles II in the Grand Place, Brussels.

A consequence of such inbreeding is the 'Habsburg jaw', a physical characteristic shared by many Habsburgs, including Charles. The extent to which this inbreeding was responsible for his numerous health issues is unclear, and disputed; Margaret Theresa, his elder sister, did not have the same issues. Based on contemporary accounts of his symptoms, he may have suffered from combined pituitary hormone deficiency and distal renal tubular acidosis.[4]

These conditions could be indicative of rare genetic disorders, possibly caused by inbreeding.[5] However, in the absence of genetic material such claims remain speculative; a 2019 study by the same team on the Habsburg jaw, based on analysis of portraits, could only conclude a genetic link was 'highly likely'.[6] One suggestion is his health problems derived from a herpetic infection shortly after birth, while his autopsy report indicates hydrocephalus.[7]

Historians Will and Ariel Durant famously described him as "short, lame, epileptic, senile and completely bald before 35, always on the verge of death but repeatedly baffling Christendom by continuing to live."[8] By the age of six, he had survived attacks of measles, chickenpox, rubella, and smallpox, any one of which was then a potentially fatal disease.[9] His Habsburg jaw was so pronounced he spoke and ate only with difficulty, and did not learn to talk until the age of four. However, it was Mariana who insisted he be carried everywhere until he was eight, and left uneducated, allegedly to reduce the 'strain' on his body and mind. Although prone to illness, contemporaries reported he spent much of his time hunting.[10]

Very little is known for certain, and much of what is suggested either unproved, or incorrect. One often cited example used to illustrate his mental problems is the allegation he slept with his father's body; while true, it was done under instructions from Mariana, whose doctors advised this would help him produce an heir. Although reputedly prone to bouts of depression, reports from his council and foreign observers including the French ambassador, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquess of Torcy, suggest his mental capacities remained intact.[11]

Reign

Mariana of Austria by Diego Velázquez, c. 1656, Regent for much of Charles's reign

Since Charles was a legal minor when Philip died on 17 September 1665, Mariana was appointed Queen Regent by the Council of Castile. While the Spanish Empire, or 'Monarchy', remained an enormous global confederation, its economic supremacy was challenged by the Dutch Republic, and increasingly England, while Europe was destabilised by French expansion under Louis XIV. Managing these issues was damaged by Mariana's power struggle with Charles's illegitimate half-brother, John Joseph of Austria.[12]

Administrative reforms were complex, since the Kingdom of Spain was a personal union of the two Crowns of Castile and Aragon, each with very different political cultures and traditions.[lower-alpha 1] As a result, government finances were in perpetual crisis; the Crown declared bankruptcy nine times between 1557 and 1666, including 1647, 1652, 1661, and 1666.[13]

However, the 17th century was a period of economic crisis for many European states, and Spain was not alone in facing these problems.[14] Infighting between those who ruled in Charles's name did little to help, but it is debatable how far they or he can be held responsible for long-term trends predating his reign. The Monarchy proved remarkably resilient, and when Charles died, remained largely intact.[15]

The system of delegating duties to a personal minister or valido was established by Philip in 1621, when he appointed the Count-Duke of Olivares. Mariana followed this precedent, her first choice being her Austrian personal confessor, Father Juan Everardo Nithard; modern assessments of her competence are often based on reports by contemporaries, who generally believed women were incapable of exercising power on their own.[16]

The costs of the Portuguese Restoration War, and the War of Devolution with France, forced the Crown to declare bankruptcy in 1662 and 1666, making reductions in expenditure urgent. The 1668 treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle and Lisbon ended the war with France, and accepted Portuguese independence. John forced Mariana to dismiss Nithard in February 1669, who replaced him with Fernando de Valenzuela. The regency was dissolved when Charles became a legal adult in 1675, then restored in 1677 on the basis of his health.[17]

Charles's illegitimate half-brother, John Joseph of Austria

The 1672 Franco-Dutch War dragged Spain into another war with France over the Spanish Netherlands, placing additional strain on the economy. When John finally took charge of government in January 1678, his first task was ending it; in the 1678 Treaties of Nijmegen, Spain ceded Franche-Comté and areas of the Spanish Netherlands returned in 1668.[18] Prior to his death in September 1679, he arranged a marriage between Charles, and a 17-year-old French princess, Marie Louise of Orléans; Mariana returned as Queen Regent but her influence was diminished.

The 1683–1684 War of the Reunions with France was followed in 1688 by the Nine Years' War. Shortly afterwards, Marie Louise died in February 1689; based on the description of her symptoms, modern doctors believe her illness was almost certainly appendicitis.[lower-alpha 2] In August, Charles married Maria Anna of Neuburg by proxy, the formal wedding taking place in May 1690; after his mother died on 16 May 1696, he ruled in his own name, although Maria Anna played a significant role due to his ill-health and her control over access to Charles.[19]

It was clear Charles's health was finally failing and agreeing on a successor became increasingly urgent. The Nine Years' War showed France could not achieve its objectives on its own; the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick was the result of mutual exhaustion and Louis's search for allies in anticipation of a contest over the Spanish throne. Austrian Habsburg Emperor Leopold refused to sign since it left the issue unresolved; he reluctantly did so in October 1697, but viewed it as a pause in hostilities.[20]

Succession

Marie Louise of Orléans, Charles's first wife

One of John's last acts was arranging Charles's marriage in 1679 to Marie Louise, eldest daughter of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. While the French ambassador wrote "... he is so ugly as to cause fear, and looks ill", it was considered irrelevant to the political benefits. Marie Louise was blamed for the failure to produce an heir, while primitive fertility treatments gave her severe intestinal problems.[21]

There has been considerable debate as to whether Charles was impotent, and if so, the cause; reports provided by Marie Louise indicate he may have suffered from premature ejaculation. The suggestion it was the result of inbreeding has not been proved, while a number of scientific studies dispute any linkage between fertility and consanguinity.[22]

After she died in February 1689, Charles married Maria Anna of Neuburg, one of the twelve children of Philip William, Elector Palatine, and sister-in-law to Emperor Leopold. Although partly selected because her family was famous for its fertility, she proved no more successful in producing an heir than her predecessor. By this stage, Charles was almost certainly impotent; his autopsy revealed he had only one atrophied testicle.[23]

As the Crown of Spain passed according to cognatic primogeniture, it was possible for a woman, or the descendant of a woman, to inherit the crown. This enabled Charles's sisters Maria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) to pass their rights to the children of their marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. To prevent Spain's acquisition by France, Maria Theresa renounced her inheritance rights; in return, Louis was promised a dowry of 500,000 gold écus, a huge sum that was never paid.[24]

In 1685, Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia married Max Emanuel of Bavaria; she died in 1692, leaving one surviving son, Joseph Ferdinand. In October 1698, France, England and the Dutch Republic attempted to impose a diplomatic solution to the Succession on Spain and Austria, by the Treaty of the Hague or First Partition Treaty. This made Joseph Ferdinand heir to the bulk of the Spanish Monarchy, with France gaining the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and other concessions in Italy plus the modern Basque province of Gipuzkoa. Leopold's younger son Archduke Charles became ruler of the Duchy of Milan, a possession considered vital to the security of Austria's southern border.[25]

Maria Anna of Neuburg, Charles's pro-Austrian second wife

Unsurprisingly, the Spanish objected to their Empire being divided by foreign powers without consultation, and on 14 November 1698, Charles II made Joseph Ferdinand heir to an independent and undivided Spanish Monarchy. Maria Anna was appointed Regent during his minority, an announcement allegedly received by the Spanish councillors in silence. Joseph Ferdinand's death in 1699 ended these arrangements.[26]

It also left Louis XIV's eldest son, the Grand Dauphin, heir to the Spanish throne, once again implying union between Spain and France. In March 1700, France, England and the Dutch agreed an alternative; Archduke Charles replaced Joseph Ferdinand, with Spanish possessions in Europe split between France, Savoy and Austria. Charles reacted by altering his will in favour of Archduke Charles, but once again stipulating an undivided and independent Spanish Monarchy.[27]

Most of the Spanish nobility disliked the Austrians, and Maria Anna, and viewed a French candidate as more likely to ensure their independence. In September 1700, Charles became ill again; by 28 September he was no longer able to eat, and Portocarrero persuaded him to alter his will in favour of Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou.[28] He died five days before his 39th birthday on 1 November 1700; Philip was proclaimed King of Spain on the 16th, and the War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701.[29]

The autopsy records his body "did not contain a single drop of blood; his heart was the size of a peppercorn; his lungs corroded; his intestines rotten and gangrenous; he had a single testicle, black as coal, and his head was full of water."[30] As suggested previously, these are indicative of hydrocephalus, a disease often associated with childhood measles, one of many illnesses suffered by Charles.[31]

Legacy

Europe in 1700

In November 1693, Charles issued a Royal Decree, providing sanctuary in Spanish Florida for escaped slaves from the colony of South Carolina. Despite its relative poverty, Spanish Florida provided protection from storms in the Gulf of Mexico for Spanish merchant shipping; the decree was intended to bolster its population, while undermining the neighboring colony, which claimed the Spanish capital of St. Augustine.[32] Later formalised in 1733 by his successor Philip V, it led to the founding in 1738 of Santa Teresa de Mose, the first legally sanctioned free black town in the present-day United States.[33]

When Charles came to the throne, the Inquisition remained a significant force, but its influence had declined, and the large auto-da-fé held during his reign were attempts to re-assert its power. Involvement in the political struggle over his heir led to its downfall; the Inquisitor General, Balthasar de Mendoza, was an ally of Maria Anna, and in 1700 he arrested Charles's personal confessor Froilán Díaz on a charge of 'bewitching' the king. When Díaz was found not guilty, Mendoza attempted to arrest those who voted for his acquittal, resulting in the establishment of a Council to investigate the Inquisition; although it survived until 1834, its influence had ended.[34]

The Caroline Islands and the town of Charleroi in modern Belgium were named after him in 1666 and 1686 respectively.[35] Decrees were also issued in his name approving universities in South America which still exist. In Peru, they include San Cristóbal, established in 1680, and the National University; in Guatemala, the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, the fourth oldest university on the continent. Others include Santo Tomas Aquino in 1688, now part of the Central University of Ecuador, and finally in 1694 the Universidad de San Nicolás de Mira in Bogota, Colombia. [36]

Potential heirs to Charles II of Spain

Philip III of Spain 1578–1621 Margaret of Austria 1584–1611 Maria Anna of Spain 1606–1646 Anne of Austria 1601–1666 Elisabeth of France 1602–1644 Philip IV of Spain 1605–1665 Mariana of Austria 1635–1696 Louis XIV of France 1638–1715 Maria Theresa of Spain 1638–1683 Charles II of Spain 1661–1700 Margaret Theresa of Spain 1651–1673 Leopold I Holy Roman Emperor 1640–1705 Eleonor Magdalene of Neuburg 1655–1720 Louis Grand Dauphin 1661–1711 Maria Antonia of Austria 1669–1692 Charles VI Holy Roman Emperor 1685–1740 Louis Dauphin of France 1682–1712 Philip V of Spain 1683–1746 Charles Duke of Berry 1686–1714 Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria 1692–1699 Potential heirs are shown with a golden border. In cases of second marriages, the first spouse is to the left and the second to the right. References Durant, D.; Durant, A. (2011). The Age of Louis XIV: The Story of Civilization. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781451647655. Kamen, H. (2001). Philip V of Spain: The King Who Reigned Twice. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300180541.

Heraldry

Heraldry of Charles II of Spain
Coat of arms as King of Spain (1665–1668) Coat of arms as King of Spain (1668–1700) Coat of arms as King of Naples & Sicily (1665–1700) Coat of arms as Duke of Milan (1665–1700) Lesser coat of arms as King of Naples (1665–1668) Coat of arms as King of Naples & Sicily (1665–1700) Coat of arms as King of Navarre (1665–1700)

Ancestry

Ancestors of Charles II of Spain
Philip I of Castile[lower-roman 1][lower-roman 2][lower-roman 3] 1478–1506 Joanna of Castile[lower-roman 1][lower-roman 2][lower-roman 3] 1479–1555 Isabella of Portugal[lower-roman 4][lower-roman 5] 1503–39 Charles V Holy Roman Emperor[lower-roman 4][lower-roman 5] 1500–58 Ferdinand I Holy Roman Emperor[lower-roman 6][lower-roman 7][lower-roman 8] 1503–64 Anna of Bohemia and Hungary[lower-roman 6][lower-roman 7][lower-roman 8] 1503–47 Isabella of Austria[lower-roman 9] 1501–26 Christian II of Denmark[lower-roman 9] 1481–1559 Maria of Spain[lower-roman 10] 1528–1603 Maximilian II Holy Roman Emperor[lower-roman 10] 1527–76 Anna of Austria[lower-roman 11][lower-roman 12] 1528–90 Albert V Duke of Bavaria[lower-roman 11][lower-roman 12] 1528–1579 Christina of Denmark[lower-roman 9] 1522–90 Francis I Duke of Lorraine[lower-roman 9] 1517–45 Philip II of Spain[lower-roman 13] 1527–98 Anna of Austria[lower-roman 13] 1549–80 Charles II Archduke of Austria[lower-roman 14][lower-roman 15] 1540–90 Maria Anna of Bavaria[lower-roman 14][lower-roman 15] 1551–1608 William V Duke of Bavaria[lower-roman 16] 1548–1626 Renata of Lorraine[lower-roman 16] 1544–1602 Philip III of Spain[lower-roman 17][lower-roman 18] 1578–1621 Margaret of Austria[lower-roman 17][lower-roman 18] 1584–1611 Ferdinand II Holy Roman Emperor[lower-roman 19] 1578–1637 Maria Anna of Bavaria[lower-roman 19] 1574–1616 Maria Anna of Spain[lower-roman 19] 1606–46 Ferdinand III Holy Roman Emperor[lower-roman 19] 1608–57 Philip IV of Spain[lower-roman 20] 1605–65 Mariana of Austria[lower-roman 20] 1634–96 Charles II of Spain 1661–1700
Notes: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor at the Encyclopædia Britannica Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Joanna" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1860). "Habsburg, Elisabeth (eigentlich Isabella von Oesterreich)" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 6. p. 167 – via Wikisource. Kurth, Godefroid (1911). "Philip II" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Maria von Spanien" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 19 – via Wikisource. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1860). "Habsburg, Karl II. von Steiermark" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 6. p. 352 – via Wikisource. Press, Volker (1990), "Maximilian II.", Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB) (in German), 16, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 471–475; (full text online) Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1860). "Habsburg, Anna von Oesterreich (1528–1587)" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 6. p. 151 – via Wikisource. Cartwright, Julia Mary (1913). Christina of Denmark, Duchess of Milan and Lorraine, 1522-1590. New York: E. P. Dutton. pp. 536–539. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1860). "Habsburg, Anna von Oesterreich (Königin von Spanien)" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 6. p. 151 – via Wikisource. Sigmund Ritter von Riezler (1897), "Wilhelm V. (Herzog von Bayern)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) (in German), 42, Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 717–723 Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Maria von Bayern" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 20 – via Wikisource. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Philipp III." . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 120 – via Wikisource. Eder, Karl (1961), "Ferdinand II.", Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB) (in German), 5, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 83–85; (full text online) Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Margaretha (Königin von Spanien)" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 13 – via Wikisource. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Maria Anna von Bayern" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 23 – via Wikisource. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Maria Anna von Spanien" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 23 – via Wikisource. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Philipp IV." . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 122 – via Wikisource. Wurzbach, Constantin, von, ed. (1861). "Habsburg, Maria Anna (Königin von Spanien)" . Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). 7. p. 24 – via Wikisource. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Charles II. (King of Spain)" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Notes

1. The Crown of Aragon was divided into the Kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, the Principality of Catalonia, and the Marquisate of Malta.
2. Despite contemporary suggestions of poison, this claim was extremely common in an era when many illnesses were poorly understood, particularly since it could rarely be disproved.

References

1. Langdon-Davies 1963, p. 3.
2. Kamen 2001, p. 25.
3. Alvarez, Ceballos & Celsa 2009, p. 3.
4. Callaway 2013.
5. Alvarez, Ceballos & Celsa 2009, p. 4.
6. Vilas 2019, pp. 553-561.
7. Turliuc 2019, pp. 76-78. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurliuc2019 (help)
8. Durant, Durant 1935, p. 452. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDurant,_Durant1935 (help)
9. Calvo 1998, p. 6.
10. Mitchell 2013, pp. 303–308.
11. Onnekirk, Mijers, Rule 2017, pp. 91–108. sfn error: no target: CITEREFOnnekirk,_Mijers,_Rule2017 (help)
12. Mitchell 2013, pp. 7–9.
13. Cowans 2003, pp. 26–27.
14. De Vries 2009, pp. 151–194.
15. Storrs 2006, pp. 6–7.
16. Mitchell 2013, pp. 233–234.
17. Mitchell 2013, pp. 265–269.
18. Horne 2005, p. 168.
19. Rule 2017, p. 97.
20. Meerts 2014, p. 168.
21. García-Escudero López 2009, p. 181. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGarcía-Escudero_López2009 (help)
22. Bittles, et al 2002, pp. 111–130. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBittles,_et_al2002 (help)
23. García-Escudero López 2009, p. 182. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGarcía-Escudero_López2009 (help)
24. Wolf 1968, p. 117.
25. Ward & Leathes 2010, p. 384.
26. Ward & Leathes 2010, p. 385.
27. McKay & Scott 1983, pp. 54–55.
28. Hargreaves-Mawdsley 1979, pp. 15–16.
29. Falkner 2015, p. 96.
30. Gargantilla 2005, p. ?.
31. Turliuc 2019, pp. 76–78. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTurliuc2019 (help)
32. Landers 1984, p. 298.
33. Landers 1984, pp. 300–301.
34. Kamen 1965, p. 185.
35. Dunford, Lee 1999, p. 303. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDunford,_Lee1999 (help)
36. Alvarez Beltran, Edna Lucia del Carmen & https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/20073931.pdf. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAlvarez_Beltran,_Edna_Lucia_del_Carmenhttps://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/20073931.pdf (help)

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