Oyo Empire

The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Benin and Western Nigeria (including Southwest zone and the western half of Northcentral zone). The Oyo Empire grew to become the largest Yoruba state. It rose through the outstanding organizational and administrative skills of the Yoruba people, wealth gained from trade and its powerful cavalry. The Oyo Empire was one of the most politically important states in the entirety of Western Africa from the mid-7th to the late 18th century,[2] holding sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in Yorubaland, but also over nearby African states, notably the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey in the modern Republic of Benin to the west.

Oyo Empire Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́  (Yoruba)
c. 1300–1896
Oyo Empire at its furthest extent during the 17th–18th centuries
Status	Empire
Capital	Oyo-Ile (1300–1535); (1600–1896) Oyo-Igboho (1600)
Common languages	Yoruba
Religion	Yoruba religion, Christianity, Islam
Government	Elective Monarchy
Alaafin
• c. 892	Oranmiyan
• ????–1896	Adeyemi I Alowolodu
Legislature	Oyo Mesi and Ogboni
Area
1680[1]	150,000 km^2 (58,000 sq mi)
Today part of	Nigeria  Benin

Mythical origins

The origins of the Oyo Empire lie with Oranyan (also known as Oranmiyan), the last prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife (Ife). Oranyan made an agreement with his brother to launch a punitive raid on their northern neighbors for insulting their father Oduduwa, the first Ooni of Ife. On the way to the battle, the brothers quarreled and the army split up.[3] Oranyan's force was too small to make a successful attack, so he wandered the southern shore until reaching Bussa. There the local chief entertained him and provided a large snake with a magic charm attached to its throat.

The chief instructed Oranyan to follow the snake until it stopped somewhere for seven days and disappeared into the ground. Oranyan followed the advice and founded Oyo where the serpent stopped. The site is remembered as Ajaka. Oranyan made Oyo his new kingdom and became the first "oba" (meaning 'king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language) with the title of "Alaafin of Oyo" (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba). He left all his treasures in Ife and allowed another king to rule there.[4]

At one time, Oyo-ile was at war with the Bariba of Borgu, who wanted to subjugate the new city still under construction. Orangun Ajagunla of Ila, Oranmiyan's elder brother, stormed in with his men to assist. Not long after the war was won, Oranmiyan had a son, Ajuwon Ajaka; much later Arabambi was born by the woman from Tapa (Nupe). It is believed that the name "Sango" was given by his maternal grandfather or he adopted it from the local name for the God of Thunder. Either way the royal family was devoted to The Spirits of Thunder (Jakuta) and War (Ogun).

Early period (12th century–1535)

A Survey of Old Oyo Palace Compound

Oranyan, the first oba (king) of Oyo, was succeeded by Oba Ajaka, Alaafin of Oyo. Ajaka was deposed, because he lacked Yoruba military virtue and allowed his sub-chiefs too much independence.[5] Leadership was then conferred upon Ajaka's brother, Shango, who was later deified as the deity of thunder and lightning. Ajaka was restored after Sango's death. Ajaka returned to the throne thoroughly more warlike and oppressive. His successor, Kori, managed to conquer the rest of what later historians would refer to as metropolitan Oyo.[4]

Ibadan

The heart of metropolitan Oyo was its capital at Oyo-Ile (also known as Oyo Katunga or Old Oyo or Oyo-oro).[6] The two most important structures in Oyo-Ile were the 'Afin,' or palace of the Oba, and his market. The palace was at the center of the city close to the Oba's market called 'Oja-Oba'. Around the capital was a tall earthen wall for defense with 17 gates. The importance of the two large structures (the palace and the Oja Oba) signified the importance of the king in Oyo.

The Nupe occupation

Oyo had grown into a formidable inland power by the end of the 14th century. For over a century, the Yoruba state had expanded at the expense of its neighbors. During the reign of Onigbogi, Oyo suffered military defeats at the hands of the Nupe led by Tsoede.[7] Sometime around 1535, the Nupe occupied Oyo and forced its ruling dynasty to take refuge in the kingdom of Borgu.[8] The Nupe sacked the capital, destroying Oyo as a regional power until the early 17th century.[9]

Imperial period (1608–1800)

House of Oranyan
Nigerian royal dynasty The Elephant, totem of the kings and emperors of Oyo prior to Abiodun The veve of Ogun, war god of the Yoruba and totem of both the emperors and kings that have followed Abiodun and the various members of the Bashorun chieftaincy family that have served the state throughout its history
Parent house	Oodua
Current region	Yorubaland
Founded	c.13th century
Founder	Oranyan
Current head	Adeyemi III
Titles	Oba Alaafin of Oyo Oba Obirin of Oyo Iba Bashorun of Oyo Iba Aare Ona Kakanfo of Oyo Iba of Oyo Oloye of Oyo Omoba of Oyo Oloori of Oyo
Style(s)	Kabiyesi Majesty Imperial Highness
Members	Abiodun Oluyole Candido da Fonseca Galvao
Connected families	Ife royal family Bini royal family
Motto	A ki ro'ba fi la le de Oyo, o ya e je a lo ree Alaafin (Yoruba for "Oyo, Descendants of the Alaafin")
Cadet branches	Alowolodu (Oyo) Agunloye (Oyo) Oluyole (Ibadan) Afonja (Ilorin)

The Yoruba of Oyo went through an interregnum of 80 years as an exiled dynasty after its defeat by the Nupe. They re-established Oyo as more centralized and expansive than ever. The people created a government that established its power over a vast empire.[8] During the 17th century, Oyo began a long stretch of growth, becoming a major empire.[9] Oyo never encompassed all Yoruba-speaking people, but it was the most populous kingdom in Yoruba history.[10]

Reconquest and expansion

Oyo Empire and surrounding states, c. 1625.

The key to Yoruba rebuilding of Oyo was a stronger military and a more centralized government. Taking a cue from their Nupe enemies (whom they called "Tapa"), the Yoruba rearmed with armor and cavalry.[8] Oba Ofinran, Alaafin of Oyo, succeeded in regaining Oyo's original territory from the Nupe.[7] A new capital, Oyo-Igboho, was constructed, and the original became known as Old Oyo.[7] The next oba, Eguguojo, conquered nearly all of Yorubaland.[7] After this, Oba Orompoto led attacks to obliterate the Nupe to ensure Oyo was never threatened by them again.[7] During the reign of Oba Ajiboyede, he held the first Bere festival, an event to celebrate peace in the kingdom. Celebrated regularly, it would retain much significance among the Yoruba long after the fall of Oyo.[7]

Under his successor, Abipa, the Yoruba repopulated Oyo-Ile and rebuilt the original capital.[7] Despite a failed attempt to conquer the Benin Empire sometime between 1578 and 1608,[7] Oyo continued to expand. The Yoruba allowed autonomy to the southeast of metropolitan Oyo, where the non-Yoruba areas could act as a buffer between Oyo and Imperial Benin.[11] By the end of the 16th century, the Ewe and Aja states of modern Benin were paying tribute to Oyo.[12]

• Dahomey Wars

The reinvigorated Oyo Empire began raiding southward as early as 1682.[13] By the end of its military expansion, Oyo's borders would reach to the coast some 320 kilometres (200 mi) southwest of its capital.[14] It met little serious opposition until the early 18th century. In 1728, the Oyo Empire invaded the Kingdom of Dahomey in a major campaign of its cavalry.[13][15] Dahomey warriors, on the other hand, had no cavalry but many firearms. Their gunshots scared the Oyo cavalry horses and prevented their charging.[16] Dahomey's army also built fortifications such as trenches, which forced the Oyo army to fight as infantry.[17] The battle lasted four days, but the Yoruba were eventually victorious after reinforcements arrived.[17] Dahomey was forced to pay tribute to Oyo. The Yoruba invaded Dahomey seven times before finally subjugating the small kingdom in 1748.[18]

• Later conquest

With its cavalry, Oyo campaigned successfully in conquest and suppression over great distances. The Oyo army was able to attack defensive fortifications, but it was harder to supply an army, and they withdrew when supplies ran out.[19] The Oyo did not use guns in its major conquests. The military waited until the 19th century to adopt them.[19] In 1764, a joint Akan (Akyem)-Dahomey-Oyo[20] force defeated an Asante army.[13] The alliance victory defined borders between the neighboring states.[13] Oyo led a successful campaign into Mahi territory north of Dahomey in the late 18th century.[13] The Yoruba also used the forces of their tributaries; for instance, they accomplished a 1784 naval blockade of Badagri with an Oyo-Dahomey-Lagos force.[21]

Organization

At the beginning, the people were concentrated in metropolitan Oyo. With imperial expansion, Oyo reorganized to better manage its vast holdings within and outside of Yorubaland. It was divided into four layers defined by relation to the core of the empire.[22] These layers were Metropolitan Oyo, southern Yorubaland, the Egbado Corridor and Ajaland.

• Metropolitan Oyo

Metropolitan Oyo corresponded, more or less, to the Oyo state prior to the Nupe invasion.[22] This was the hub of the empire, where the Yoruba spoke the Oyo dialect.[11] Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces, with three on the west side of the Ogun River and three to the river's east.[11] Each province was supervised by a governor appointed directly by the Alaafin of Oyo.[23]

• Yorubaland

The second layer of the empire was composed of the towns closest to Oyo-Ile, which were recognized as brothers.[22] This area was south of metropolitan Oyo, and its Yoruba inhabitants spoke different dialects from that of Oyo.[11] These tributary states were led by their own rulers, titled Obas,[23] who were confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo.[23]

• Egbado Corridor

The empire's third layer was the Egbado Corridor southwest of Yorubaland. This area was inhabited by the Egba and Egbado, and guaranteed Oyo's trade with the coast. The Egba and Egbado tributaries were allowed, like their Yoruba counterparts, to rule themselves. They were, however, supervised by Ajele.[22] These were agents appointed by the Alaafin of Oyo to oversee his interest and monitor commerce. The lead representative of Oyo in the corridor was the Olu, ruler of the town of Ilaro.[14]

• Ajaland

Ajaland was the last layer added to the empire. It was the most restive and distant, and kept in line with threats of expeditions against it.[22] This territory extended from the non-Yoruba areas west of the Egbado Corridor far into Ewe controlled territory in modern Togo.[11] This area, like all tributary states, was allowed a fair degree of autonomy as long as taxes were paid, the orders from Oyo were strictly followed, and access to local markets was provided to Oyo merchants.[12] The Oyo often demanded tribute in slaves. The tributary chiefs sometimes made war on other peoples to capture slaves for this purpose.[24] Oyo was known to punish disobedience by wholesale slaughter of the erring community, as it accomplished in Allada in 1698.[12]

Political structure

The Oyo Empire developed a highly sophisticated political structure to govern its territorial domains. Scholars have not determined how much of this structure existed prior to the Nupe invasion.After reemerging from exile in the early 17th century, Oyo took on a noticeably more militant character. The influence of an aggressive Yoruba culture is exemplified in the standards placed on the oba (king) and the roles of his council.

The Alaafin of Oyo

The oba (meaning 'king' in the Yoruba language) at Oyo, who was referred to as the Alaafin of Oyo (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba), was the head of the empire and supreme overlord of the people.[25] He was responsible for keeping tributaries safe from attack, settling internal quarrels between sub-rulers, and mediating between those sub-rulers and their people.[25] The Alaafin of Oyo was also expected to give his subordinates honours and presents.[25] In return, all sub-rulers had to pay homage to the Oba and renew their allegiance at annual ceremonies.[23] The most important of these was the Bere festival, marking the acclamation of successful rule by the Alaafin.[23] After the Bere festival, peace in Yorubaland was supposed to last for three years.[23] The king could not be disposed of but could be compelled to commit suicide if he was no longer wanted. This was done by sending Bashorun (The prime minister) to present either an empty calabash or a dish of parrot's eggs to him and pass a sentence of rejection, known as Awon Eniyan Koo (i.e. the people reject you, the world rejects you and the gods reject you also). According to tradition, the Alaafin was expected to commit ritual suicide thereafter.[26]

Selection of the Alaafin

The Oyo Empire was not a purely hereditary monarchy, nor was it an absolute one.[25] The Oyo Mesi selected the Alaafin. He was not always closely related to his predecessor, although he did have to be descended from Oranmiyan, a son of Oduduwa, and to hail from the Ona Isokun ward (which is one of the three royal wards).[25] At the beginning of the Oyo Empire, the Alaafin's eldest son usually succeeded his father upon the throne. This sometimes led the crown prince, known as the Aremo, to hasten the death of his father. Inorder to prevent this occurrence, it became traditional for the crown prince to be made to commit ritual suicide upon his father's death. Independent of the succession, the Aremo was quite powerful in his own right. For instance, by custom the Alaafin abstained from leaving the palace, except during the important festivals, which in practice curtailed his power. By contrast, the Aremo often left the palace. This led the noted historian S. Johnson to observe: "The father is the king of the palace, and the son the king for the general public".[27] The two councils which checked the Alaafin had a tendency to select a weak Alaafin after the reign of a strong one to keep the office from becoming too powerful.[28]

The Ilari

The Alaafin of Oyo appointed certain religious and government officials, who were usually eunuchs.[29] These officials were known as the ilari or half-heads, because of the custom of shaving half of their heads and applying what was believed to be a magical substance into them.[30] The hundreds of Ilari were divided evenly between the sexes.[30] Junior members of the Ilari did menial tasks, while seniors acted as guards or sometimes messengers to the other world via sacrifice.[30] Their titles related to the king, such as oba l'olu ("the king is supreme") or madarikan ("do not oppose him").[30] They carried red and green fans as credentials of their status.[30]

All sub-courts of Oyo had Ilari who acted as both spies and taxmen.[23] Oyo appointed these to visit and sometimes reside in Dahomey and the Egbado Corridor to collect taxes and spy on Dahomey's military successes, so that the Alaafin of Oyo could get his cut.[31]

The Councils

While the Alaafin of Oyo was supreme overlord of the people, he was not without checks on his power. The Oyo Mesi and the Yoruba Earth cult known as Ogboni kept the Oba's power in check.[29] The Oyo Mesi spoke for the politicians while the Ogboni spoke for the people and were backed by the power of religion.[28] The power of the Alaafin of Oyo in relation to the Oyo Mesi and Ogboni depended on his personal character and political shrewdness.

Oyo Mesi

The Oyo Mesi were seven principal councillors of the state. They constituted the Electoral Council and possessed legislative powers. Led by the Bashorun, acting as prime minister, and consisting of the Agbaakin, the Samu, the Alapini, the Laguna, the Akiniku and the Ashipa, they represented the voice of the nation and had the chief responsibility of protecting the interests of the empire. The Alaafin was required to take counsel from them whenever any important matter affecting the state occurred.[32] Each chief had a state duty to perform at court every morning and afternoon. Each also had a deputy whom they would send to the Alaafin if their absence was unavoidable. The Oyo Mesi developed as a check on the Alaafin's power, preventing the Alaafin from being an autocrat; they compelled many Alaafins to commit suicide during the 17th and 18th centuries.[32]

The head of the council of Oyo Mesi, the Bashorun, consulted the Ifa oracle prior to the royal succession for approval from the gods. New alaafins of Oyo were therefore seen as being appointed by the gods. They were regarded as Ekeji Orisa, meaning "deputy of the gods." The Bashorun had final say on the nomination of the new Alaafin, his power rivaling that of the king himself. For example, the Bashorun orchestrated many religious festivals; he did this in addition to being commander-in-chief of the army, which gave him considerable independent religious authority.

Chief among the responsibilities of the Bashorun was the all important festival of Orun. This religious divination, held every year, was to determine if the members of the Mesi still held favour with the Alaafin. If the council decided on the disapproval of the Alaafin, the Bashorun presented the Alaafin with an empty calabash, or parrot's eggs, as a sign that he must commit suicide. This was the only way to remove the Alaafin because he could not legally be deposed. Once given the calabash or the parrot's eggs, the Alaafin, his eldest son the Aremo, and his personal counselor within the Oyo Mesi, the Asamu,[32] all had to commit suicide in order to renew the government. The suicide ceremony took place during the Orun festival.

The Ogboni

The Oyo Mesi did not enjoy an absolute power either. While the Oyo Mesi wielded political influence, the Ogboni represented the popular opinion backed by the authority of religion, and therefore the views of the Oyo Mesi could be moderated by the Ogboni. There were checks and balances on the power of the Alafin and the Oyo Mesi and thus no one was arrogated absolute power. The Ogboni was a very powerful secret society composed of aristocratic freemen noted for their age, wisdom and importance in religious and political affairs.[29] Its members enjoyed immense power over the common people due to their religious station. A testament to how widespread the institution was is the fact that there were (and still are) Ogboni councils at nearly all sub-courts within Yorubaland.[29] Aside from their duties in respect to the worship of the earth, they were responsible for judging any case dealing with the spilling of blood.[29] The leader of the Ogboni, the Oluwo, had the unqualified right of direct access to the Alaafin of Oyo on any matter.[29]

Military

There was a high degree of professionalism in the army of the Oyo Empire.[33] Its military success was due in large part to its cavalry as well as the leadership and courage of Oyo officers and warriors.[33] Because its main geographic focus was north of the forest, Oyo enjoyed easier farming and thus a steady growth in population.[33] This contributed to Oyo's ability to consistently field a large force. There was also an entrenched military culture in Oyo where victory was obligatory and defeat carried the duty of committing suicide.[28] This do-or-die policy no doubt contributed to the military aggressiveness of Oyo's generals.[28]

Cavalry

The Oyo Empire was the only Yoruba state to adopt cavalry; it did so because most of its territory was in the northern savannah.[15] The origin of the cavalry is disputed; however, the Nupe, Borgu and Hausa in neighbouring territories also used cavalry and may have had the same historical source.[34] Oyo was able to purchase horses from the north and maintain them in metropolitan Oyo because of partial freedom from the tsetse fly.[35] Cavalry was the long arm of the Oyo Empire. Late 16th and 17th century expeditions were composed entirely of cavalry.[15] There were drawbacks to this. Oyo could not maintain its cavalry army in the south but could raid at will.[13][36]

Cavalry in highly developed societies such as Oyo was divided into light and heavy.[15] Heavy cavalry on larger imported horses was armed with heavy thrusting lances or spears and also with swords.[15] Light cavalry on smaller indigenous ponies was armed with throwing spears or bows.[37]

Infantry

Infantry in the region around the Oyo Empire was uniform in both armour and armament. All infantry in the region carried shields, swords and lances of one type or another.[13] Shields were four feet tall and two feet wide and made of elephant or ox hide.[38] A 3-foot-long (0.91 m) heavy sword was the main armament for close combat.[38] The Yoruba and their neighbours used triple barbed javelins which could be thrown accurately from about 30 paces.[13]

Structure

The Oyo Empire, like many empires before it, used both local and tributary forces to expand its domains. The structure of the Oyo military prior to its imperial period was simple and closer aligned to the central government in metropolitan Oyo. This may have been adequate in the 15th century when Oyo controlled only its heartland, but to make and maintain conquest farther away, the structure underwent several changes.

The Eso

Oyo maintained a semi-standing army of specialist cavalry soldiers called the Eso, the Esho or, formally, the Eso of Ikoyi.[39] These were 70 junior war chiefs who were nominated by the Oyo Mesi and confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo.[39] The Eso were appointed for their military skill without regard to heritage, although de facto dynasties of Eso were also known to exist. The Eso were led by the Are-Ona-Kakanfo,[28] and were famous for living by a warrior code that was comparable to the Latin dictum infra dignitatem.

Are Ona Kakanfo

After Oyo's return from exile, the post of Are-Ona-Kakanfo was established as the supreme military commander.[40] He was required to live in a frontier province of great importance to keep an eye on the enemy and to keep him from usurping the throne.[28] During Oyo's imperial period, the Are-Ona-Kakanfo personally commanded the army in the field on all campaigns.[28]

Metropolitan Army

Since the Are-Ona-Kakanfo could not reside near the capital, arrangements had to be made for the latter's protection in case of emergency. Forces inside metropolitan Oyo were commanded by the Bashorun, leading member of the Oyo Mesi.[40] As stated earlier, Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces divided evenly by a river. Provincial forces were thus grouped into two armies, under the Onikoyi and the Okere for the east and west side of the river respectively.[40] Lesser war chiefs were known as Balogun, a title carried on by the soldiers of Oyo's successor state, Ibadan.[41]

Tributary Army

Tributary leaders and provincial governors were responsible for collecting tribute and contributing troops under local generalship to the imperial army in times of emergency.[11] Occasionally, tributary leaders would be ordered to attack neighbors even without the backing of the main imperial army.[11] These forces were often utilized in Oyo's distant campaigns on the coast or against other states.

Commerce

Oyo became the southern emporium of the Trans-Saharan trade. Exchanges were made in salt, leather, horses, kola nuts, ivory, cloth and slaves.[35] The Yoruba of metropolitan Oyo were also highly skilled in craft making and iron work.[35] Aside from taxes on trade products coming in and out of the empire, Oyo also became wealthy off the taxes imposed on its tributaries. Taxes on the kingdom of Dahomey alone brought in an amount estimated at 638 thousand U.S. dollars a year.[33]

Zenith

Oyo Empire and surrounding states c. 1700.

By 1680, the Oyo Empire spanned over 150,000 square kilometers.[1] It reached the height of its power in the 18th century.[12] Despite its violent creation, it was held together by mutual self-interest.[25] The government was able to provide unity for a vast area through a combination of local autonomy and imperial authority.[33]

Unlike the great savannah empires, of which Oyo may not be called a successor since it was a successor of Ife, there was little if any Islamic influence in the empire.[22] It is known that at least some Muslim officials were kept in Metropolitan Oyo,[42] and men capable of writing and calculating in Arabic were reported by French traders in 1787.[42]

Decline

Solomon's knot, a quasi-heraldic symbol of Yoruba royalty

Many believe the decline of the Oyo empire had started as early as 1754 with the dynastic intrigues and palace coups sponsored by the Oyo Prime Minister Gaha. Gaha, in his quest for absolute power, conspired with the Oyo Mesi and probably to some extent the Ogboni to force four successive Alaafins to commit ritual suicide after they had been presented with the symbolic parrot's eggs. Between June and October 1754 alone, two Alaafins had been forced to commit suicide by Gaha.[43] Because of this, Alaafin Awonbioju spent 130 days on the throne, while Alaafin Labisi only spent 17 days on the throne. Gaha's treachery was not ended until 1774 during the reign of Alaafin Abiodun, the fifth Alaafin he served. Gaha was subsequently executed by Abiodun but the instability that had been brought about by these intrigues had further weakened Oyo.

Alaafin Abiodun during his reign had also conducted failed campaigns against Borgu in 1783[44] and Nupe in 1789,[45] losing the equivalent of 11 and 13 generals and their men respectively. Abiodun was subsequently murdered by his own son Awole, who subsequently ascended his father's throne.

The events that led to the secession of Ilorin began in 1793. Ilorin was a war camp headed by the Are-Ona Kakanfo Afonja. Afonja took cause with Awole when the latter commanded him to attack Alaafin Abiodun's maternal home, Iwere-Ile. Afonja, being bound by an oath and also desirous not to fall under a curse from a previous Alaafin made to the effect that any Aare Ona Kakanfo who attacked Iwere-Ile (his paternal home) was to die miserably, refused to comply. A further cause was given in 1795, when Awole ordered Afonja to attack the market town of Apomu, a part of Ile-Ife. All Alaafins, due to the Yoruba belief that Ife was the spiritual home of the Yorubas, were previously made to swear an oath never to attack Ife.[46] Afonja carried out Awole's order and sacked Apomu, but on the return of the army from the campaign he marched on the capital Oyo-Ile (which was itself a taboo), and demanded that Awole abdicate.[47] Awole eventually committed ritual suicide.[46]

After the death of Awole, there was a scramble for the throne by numerous contenders; some were reported to have spent less than six months on the throne; there was also a period of interregnum of almost twenty years where the various factions could not agree on a candidate.[46] This power vacuum led to the ascendancy of powerful military and regional commanders like Adegun, the Onikoyi and Solagberu, the Otun Are-Ona Kakanfo. Shehu Alimi, a Fulani chief who was the leader of the growing Muslim population in Oyo, also rose to power at this time. These new elements had lost regard for the office of the Alaafin due to the various political wranglings and the lack of a central authority at the time; this situation eventually led to Afonja seceding Ilorin from Oyo in 1817 with the help of Oyo Muslims. In 1823, after Afonja had been killed by his erstwhile allies Shehu Alimi and Solagberu (who was himself later killed by Alimi's son), Ilorin became part of the Sokoto Caliphate.[48] By the time Captain Hugh Clapperton visited Oyo-Ile in 1825 during the reign of Alaafin Majotu, the empire was already in a state of decline. Clapperton's party recorded passing numerous Oyo villages burned by the Fulani of Ilorin while Majotu had also sought the help of the English king and the Oba of Benin in putting down the Ilorin rebellion. Clapperton also noticed a shortage of horses, even though the Oyo were renowned as a great cavalry force; this might have something to do with the fact that most of the empire's soldiers and hence cavalry were stationed at Ilorin under the command of Afonja (and later Alimi's successors).[48]

Ilorin then besieged Offa and started raiding, burning and pillaging villages in Oyo, eventually destroying the capital Oyo-Ile in 1835.[46]

Loss of the Egbado Corridor

As Oyo tore itself apart via political intrigue, its vassals began taking advantage of the situation to press for independence. The Egba, under the leadership of a war chief called Lishabi, massacred the Ilari stationed in their area and drove off an Oyo punitive force.[11]

The Dahomey Revolt

In 1823 Dahomey was reported to have raided villages that were under the protection of Oyo for slaves due to the high demand for them.[49] Oyo immediately demanded a huge tribute from King Gezo for the unauthorized incursion, to which Gezo dispatched his Brazilian viceroy, Chacha Francisco Félix de Sousa, to the Alaafin at Oyo to make peace. The peace talks eventually broke down, and Oyo subsequently attacked Dahomey.[50] The Oyo army was decisively defeated, ending Oyo's hegemony over Dahomey.[51] After gaining its independence, Dahomey began raiding the corridor.[14]

Ago d'Oyo

After the destruction of Oyo-Ile, the capital was moved further south, to Ago d'Oyo. Oba Atiba sought to preserve what remained of Oyo by placing on Ibadan the duty of protecting the capital from the Ilorin in the north and northeast.[52] He also attempted to get the Ijaye to protect Oyo from the west against the Dahomeans.[52] The center of Yoruba power moved further south to Ibadan, a Yoruba war camp settled by Oyo commanders in 1830.[15]

Final demise

Alaafin Oyo c. 1910

Atiba's gambit failed, and Oyo never regained its prominence in the region. The Oba, otherwise called Atiba Atobatele, died in 1859; His son Adeyemi I, the third Alaafin to rule in the present Oyo, died in 1905. During the colonial period, the Yorubas were one of the most urbanized groups in Africa. About 22% of the population lived in large areas with populations exceeding 100,000, and over 50% lived in cities made up of 25,000 or more people. The index of urbanization in 1950 was close to that of the United States, excluding Ilorin. The Yoruba continue to be the most urbanized African ethnic group today. Prominent contemporary cities include Ibadan, Osogbo, and Ogbomoso, which are some of the major cities that flourished after old Oyo's collapse.[53]

A remnant of the monarchy continues to exist as one of the traditional states of contemporary Nigeria.

See also

• Oyotunji African Village
• Rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo
• History of Nigeria

Notes

1. Thornton 1998, p. 104.
2. Forde,1967,p 36
3. "Oranyan". Litcaf. 12 January 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
4. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 291
5. "Ajaka". Litcaf. 12 January 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
6. Goddard 1971, pp. 207–211.
7. Stride & Ifeka p. 292
8. Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 89.
9. Thornton 1999, p. 77.
10. Alpern 1998, p. 37.
11. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 296.
12. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 293.
13. Thornton 1999, p. 79.
14. Smith 1989, p. 122.
15. Smith 1989, p. 48.
16. Thornton 1999, p. 82.
17. Thornton 1999, p. 86.
18. Alpern 1998, p. 165.
19. Thornton 1999, p. 97.
20. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 February 2007. Retrieved 8 July 2012.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
21. Thornton 1999, p. 88.
22. Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 95.
23. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 297.
24. Alpern 1998, p. 34.
25. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 298.
26. Fasanya, Akin (2004). "http://www.laits.utexas.edu/africa/2004/database/fasanya.html". The University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. External link in |title= (help)
27. Church Missionary Society, G.31 A.2/1888-9, Letter of S. Johnson to the Rev. J.B. Wood, 8 November 1887, as cited by Law R., The Oyo Empire c. 1600-c. 1836, p. 71 (1977)
28. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 300.
29. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 299.
30. Smith 1989, p. 12.
31. Smith 1989, p. 10.
32. Afolayan, Funso. (2000) "Kingdoms of West Africa", Africa Vol. 1 ed. by Tony Falola, p. 173.
33. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 301.
34. Law 1975, pp. 1–15.
35. Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 302.
36. Why Nations Fail: The origins of power, prosperity and poverty. p. 254. Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. 2012. ISBN 9780307719218
37. Smith 1989, p. 50.
38. Thornton 1999, p. 80.
39. Smith 1989, p. 56.
40. Smith 1989, p. 53.
41. Smith 1989, p. 57.
42. Smith 1989, p. 20.
43. (PRO:T.70/1523)."Extract of letter of W. Devaynes, Governor of the English fort at Whydah, 22 Oct. 1754, quoted in letter of T. Melvil, Cape Coast Castle, 30 Nov. 1754". Public Records Office, London
44. (PRO: T.70/1545). "Letter of Lionel Abson, Governor of the English fort at Whydah, 26 Sept. 1783" Public Records Office, London
45. Dalzel, Archibald. "The History of Dahomy, An Inland Kingdom of Africa" London,1793,p.229
46. Akinjogbin, Adeagbo (1998). War and Peace in Yorubaland 1793-1893. ISBN 9781294973.
47. Bowdich, Edward (1966). Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee (1819). ISBN 0714617946.
48. Clapperton, Hugh (1829). Journal of a second expedition into the interior of Africa: from the bight of Benin to Soccatoo.
49. "The Rise & Fall Of Oyo Empire". Dakingsman.com. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
50. ."Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer" Cape coast, 1822-3
51. Alpern 1998, p. 166.
52. Smith 1989, p. 123.
53. Bascom 1962, pp. 699-709.

References

• Afolayan, Funso (2000). Falola, Toyin (ed.). Kingdoms of West Africa: Benin, Oyo and Asante. Africa. 2. Carolina Academic Press. p. 173. ISBN 0-89089-768-9.

• Alpern, Stanley B. (1998). Amazons of Black Sparta: The Women Warriors of Dahomey. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-0678-9.

• Bowdich, Thomas Edward (1819). Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, with a statistical account of that kingdom, and geographical notices of other parts of the interior of Africa. London: J. Murray.

• Bascom, William (August 1962). "Some Aspects of Yoruba Urbanism". American Anthropologist. 64 (4): 699–709. doi:10.1525/aa.1962.64.4.02a00010. JSTOR 667787.
• Goddard, Stephen (June 1971). "Ago That became Oyo: An Essay in Yoruba Historical Geography". The Geographical Journal. Blackwell Publishing. 137 (2): 207–211. doi:10.2307/1796741. JSTOR 1796741.
• Law, Robin (1975). "A West African Cavalry State: The Kingdom of Oyo". The Journal of African History. 16 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1017/S0021853700014079. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 181095.
• Oliver, Roland (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20981-1.
• Oliver, Roland & Anthony Atmore (2001). Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79372-6.
• Smith, Robert S. (1989). Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa Second Edition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-12334-0.
• Stride, G.T. & C. Ifeka (1971). Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000-1800. Edinburgh: Nelson. ISBN 0-17-511448-X.
• Thornton, John K. (1999). Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500-1800. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-393-7.
• Thornton, John (1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 340 Pages. ISBN 0-521-62724-9.
• Easley, Dr. Larry. "The Four Forest States of Africa." Oyo Empire. Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau. 2 Mar. 2009.
• Kehnide Salami, Yunusa Ph.D. "The Democratic Structure of Yoruba Political-Cultural Heritage." Department of Philosophy Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 29 Apr. 2009.
• Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Limited, 1995
• Fasanya, Akin (2004). "The Original Religion of the Yorubas". http://www.laits.utexas.edu/africa/2004/database/fasanya.html
• Forde, Daryll (1967). West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. p. 36. ISBN 0-19-724187-5.

External links

• Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology